choosing and developing qualitative research designs

8/13/2019 Choosing and Developing Qualitative Research Designs

1/22

Choosing and developing qualitative research designsHandout for the Qualitative Research Module – Prepared by Anna Voce, November 2!

1. What is a research design? A research desi"n refers to the overall strate"y or approach of your study# $he

study desi"n is selected accordin" to the type of %uestions you have formulated andthe nature of &no'led"e you 'ant the study to "enerate# $he study desi"n that youselect 'ill in turn lead you to the selection of the samplin" and data collectionmethods you 'ill use in your study#

($he research strate"y is determined by the nature of the research %uestion#Research strate"ies are merely tools) it is the researcher*s responsibility tounderstand the variety available and the different purposes of each strate"y, toappreciate in advance the ramifications of selectin" one method over another, andto become astute in the selection of one method over another# + $he lin& bet'eenthe %uestion and the method chosen 'ill determine the types of results obtained and

ultimately the usefulness of the results# -Morse .//! p# 2201

2. What influences your choice of research design? $he research paradi"m – hether you choose to adhere to a positivist, interpretive

or critical paradi"m 'ill determine your choice in desi"n for your %ualitative researchinvesti"ation# A positivist research paradi"m 'ill re%uire the early identification anddevelopment of research %uestions -overall and specific1, a choice of a researchsite, establishment of samplin" strate"ies, as 'ell as data collection and analysismethods# $he research proposal 'ill lay out the sta"es and phases of the study)plannin", entry, data collection, 'ithdra'al, analysis and 'rite3up# Positivist%ualitative research desi"ns provide 'ell3defined road maps for the researcher#4nterpretive and critical research desi"ns are more iterative in nature# $he desi"n isless structured and not predetermined# $he researcher follo's a path of discovery,'here ne' research %uestions arise as data is collected# 5ata is analysedconcurrently to collection) as ne' %uestions arise throu"h the analysis, so they areincorporated into further data collection# 6indin"s are shared 'ithsta&eholders7informants and discussed, and their insi"hts may 'ell lead to furtherinvesti"ation#

$he purpose of the study, the nature of the research %uestions and the s&ills andresources available to the researcher# 8#"# (4f the research %uestion concerns themeaning of a phenomenon, then the method that 'ould ans'er the %uestion isphenomenolo"y# 4f the %uestion concerns the nature of the phenomenon, then theans'er is best obtained usin" ethno"raphy# 4f the %uestion concerns an e9perienceand the phenomenon in %uestion is a process, the method of choice for addressin"the %uestion is "rounded theory# -Morse .//! p#2201

ho and 'hat 'ill be studied – $he study may 'ant to study cases, phenomena, orsocial processes# 4n addition studies may have a sin"le or multi3focus# 6ore9ample)

o A sin"le case or phenomenon may be studied in detail -e#"# :laser and

;trauss -./


2/22

defined as a sin"le classroom or home# A case study desi"n 'ould beused in this type of investi"ation#

o $he researcher may focus on a number of cases, 'hich are then

analysed in terms of their specific and "eneric properties# 8#"# ;everal A45; patients 'ho are on HAAR$ to determine the uni%ue and commonfactors that enable the process of adherence to treatment# $he "rounded

theory desi"n may be used in this study#o $he researcher may 'ant to uncover the nature of circumcision rites, in

order to establish 'hat 'ould be suitable harmless or beneficial practicesthat could substitute for harmful practices# An ethno"raphic7participantobservation desi"n may be best suited to this investi"ation#

o A researcher may be part of a team 'ho 'ould li&e to improve the %uality

of care provided in their district# $hey >ointly identify problems hinderin"the %uality of care, desi"n solutions and reflect on 'hat is effective7noteffective and institute chan"es as re%uired# $his investi"ation 'ould bebest suited to a participatory desi"n#

References for this section:

5en?in N@ and incoln B; -.//!1 ;trate"ies of 4n%uiry# Part 444 In) 5en?in N@ andincoln B; 8ditors -.//!1 Handbook of qualitative research. ;a"e# C;A#

Available on QR D5#

Morse EM -.//!1 5esi"nin" 6unded %ualitative research# Dhapter .0 In) 5en?inN@ and incoln B; 8ditors -.//!1 Handbook of qualitative research. ;a"e# C;A#

Available on QR D5#

3. Types of qualitative research design

$he follo'in" are briefly presented)

$he case study 8thno"raphy

:rounded theory

Phenomenolo"y

Participatory research

8valuation research

2


3/22

4. The case study(;ome case studies are %ualitative studies, some are not + Dase study is not amethodolo"ical choice, but a choice of ob>ect to be studied# e choose to study thecase# e could study it in many 'ays# $he physician studies the child because the

child is ill# $he child*s symptoms are both %ualitative and %uantitative# $he physician*srecord is more %uantitative than %ualitative# $he social 'or&er studies the child becausethe child is ne"lected# $he symptoms of ne"lect are both %ualitative and %uantitative#$he formal record the social 'or&er &eeps is more %ualitative than %uantitative# 4n manyprofessional and practical fields, cases are studied and recorded# As a form of research,case study is defined by interest in individual cases, not by methods of in%uiry used +$he name case study is emphasised + because it dra's attention to the %uestion of'hat specifically can be learned from the sin"le case + -51esi"nin" the study FmustGoptimise understandin" of the case rather than "eneralisation beyond# -;ta&e .//!p#20


4/22

interest observable in the case represents the phenomenon "enerally + the casesare opportunities to study the phenomena + $he researcher + -selects1 a case ofsome typicality, but leanin" to'ard those cases that seem to offer opportunity tolearn + to ta&e the case from 'hich 'e feel 'e can learn the most# $hat may meanta&in" the one that 'e can spend the most time 'ith# Potential for learnin" is adifferent and sometimes superior criterion to representativeness# ften it is better to

learn a lot from an atypical case than a little from a ma"nificently typical case#-;ta&e .//! p#2!01

4.4. Study methods

$he methods of %ualitative research pertain to %ualitative case study# ar"ely thou"h,the data collection methods used in a case study involve observation and reflection#(Qualitative case study is characterised by the main researcher spendin" substantialtime, on site, personally in contact 'ith activities and operations of the case, reflectin",revisin" meanin"s of 'hat is "oin" on# + Dase'or&ers see& to see 'hat is natural inhappenin"s, in settin"s, in e9pressions of value# hat the researchers are unable tosee for themselves is obtained by intervie'in" people 'ho did see or by findin"documents recordin" it# -Ibid. p#2!21

5ata is continuously interpreted, a"ain and a"ain# Records and tabulations areanalysed not only for classification and pattern reco"nition, but for on"oin" reflection touncover underlyin" connections#

4.5. Studying a case

hen conductin" a case study, researchers loo& for both 'hat is common and 'hat isuni%ue about the case, but usually the end result presents 'hat is uni%ue# $here is li&elyto be somethin" uni%ue about)

($he nature of the case

4ts historical bac&"round $he physical settin"

ther conte9ts, includin" economic, political, le"al and aesthetic

ther cases throu"h 'hich this case is reco"nised

$hose informants throu"h 'hom the case may be &no'n

$o study the case, many researchers 'ill "ather data on all of the above#

$he case study researcher faces a strate"ic choice in decidin" ho' much and ho' lon"the comple9ities of the case should be studied# Not everythin" about the case can beunderstood – ho' much needs to beI 8ach researcher 'ill ma&e up his or her o'nmind# -;ta&e .//! p# 20


5/22

be the case*s o'n story, but it is the researcher*s dressin" of the case*s o'n story# $hisis not to dismiss the aim of findin" the story that bests represents the case, but to remindthat the criteria of representation ultimately are decided by the researcher#

Many a researcher 'ould li&e to tell the 'hole story but of course cannot# $he 'holestory e9ceeds anyone*s &no'in", anyone*s tellin"# + A continuum runs from tellin" lots

to tellin" nothin"# + Driteria for selectin" content are many# + ;ome are set by fundin"a"encies, prospective readers, rhetorical convention, the researcher*s career pattern,the prospect of publication# ;ome criteria are set b notions of 'hat represents the casemost fully + $hese are sub>ective choices not unli&e those all researchers ma&e inchoosin" 'hat to study# ;ome are made 'hile desi"nin" the case study, but somecontinue to be made throu"h the final hours#

+ Ho'ever moved to share ideas, ho'ever clever and elaborate their 'ritin"s, caseresearchers, as others, pass alon" to readers some of their personal meanin"s of eventsand relationships – and fail to pass alon" others# $hey &no' that the reader too 'ill addand subtract, invent and shape – reconstructin" the &no'led"e in 'ays that leave itdifferently connected and more li&ely to be personally useful# + Donceptually for the

reader, the ne' case cannot be but some combination of cases already &no'n# A ne'case 'ithout commonality cannot be understood# Bet a ne' case 'ithout distinction 'illnot be noticed# -Researchers1 see& 'ays to protect and validate the transfer of&no'led"e# -;ta&e .//! p#2!32!.1

4.!. "nsuing tust#othiness in a case study

$rian"ulation – the "atherin" of data from multiple sources – is used to "enerate multipleperceptions in order to clarify meanin", and verify the repeatability of an observation orinterpretation# ($o reduce the li&elihood of misinterpretation, 'e employ variousprocedures, includin" redundancy of data "atherin" and procedural challen"es toe9planations + called trian"ulation# + Jut, ac&no'led"in" that no observations orinterpretations are perfectly repeatable, trian"ulations serves also to clarify meanin" by

identifyin" different 'ays the phenomenon is bein" seen# -;ta&e .//! p# 2!.1

4.$. "%amples of case studies

@elly PE -.//K1 A framework to examine women’s successes in a substanceabuse treatment program. FAbstractG 5octoral 5issertation# Health ;ciencesDentre Cniversity of 4llinois, Dhica"o# Available on QR D5#

McDoy HV Messiah ;8 Lhao -221 4mprovin" access to primary health care forchronic dru" users) an innovative systemic intervention for providers# FAbstractGournal of !ehavioural Health "ervices and Research. Vol# 2/ -!1 pp#!!3!=#

Available on QR D5#

#.$. Reference for this section: ;ta&e R8 -.//!1 Dase studies# Dhapter .! In)5en?in N@ and incoln B; 8ditors -.//!1 Handbook of qualitative research. ;a"e#C;A#

5. Ethnography8thno"raphy -also called participant observation or naturalistic in%uiry1 has its roots inanthropolo"ical cultural research# (Ethno is :ree& for people or fol&, and graphy refersto describin" somethin" -Neuman .//= p# 0!


6/22

research 'here the researcher immerses him7herself in a situation, "ets close to people,ma&es them feel comfortable about his7her presence, and ma&es observations about thephenomenon of interest in the natural environment -Jernhard .//1#

8thno"raphy usually refers to forms of research that have a substantial number of thefollo'in" features)

(A stron" emphasis on e9plorin" the nature of particular social phenomena, ratherthan settin" out to test hypotheses about them

A tendency to 'or& primarily 'ith (unstructured data, that is, data that have notbeen coded at the point of data collection in terms of a closed set of analyticcate"ories

4nvesti"ation of a small number of cases, perhaps >ust one case, in detail

Analysis of data that involves e9plicit interpretation of the meanin"s and functions ofhuman actions, the product of 'hich mainly ta&es the form of verbal descriptionsand e9planations -At&inson and Hammersley .//! p# 2!K1

5.1. &ole of the o'see

A variety of roles may be adopted by observers# Eun&er ./


7/22

emotions as others# He or she needs to leave the field and under"o reorientation toreturn to bein" a researcher#

4n determinin" the role of the observer, the follo'in" dimensions need to be evaluated-At&inson and Hammersley .//! p# 2!/1)

hether the researcher is &no'n to be a researcher by all those bein" studied, or

only by some, or by none# Ho' much, and 'hat, is &no'n about the research, by 'hom

hat sorts of activities are and are not en"a"ed in by the researcher in the filed,and ho' this locates her or him in relation to the various conceptions of cate"oryand "roup membership used by participants

hat the orientation of the researcher isO ho' completely he or she consciouslyadopts the orientation of insider or outsider#

5.2. Selection of a study sitesampling

Selecting a site

An ethno"raphic researcher selects a site, then identifies cases to e9amine 'ithin it#;electin" a field site is an important decision, and it is important that researchersdocument the site selection processes# $hree factors are relevant 'hen choosin" a site-Neuman .//= p#0.1

Richness of data – some sites are more li&ely than others to provide rich data# ;itesthat present a 'eb of social relations, a variety of activities, and diverse events overtime provide richer more interestin" data#

Cnfamiliarity – researchers ne' to ethno"raphic research should choose a site thatis not familiar to them# 4t is easier to observe cultural events and social relations in ane'7unfamiliar situation – to avoid ta&in" thin"s for "ranted#

;uitability – in relation to the researcher*s time and s&ills, possible conflicts amon"stpeople in the site, researcher*s personal characteristics and feelin"s, and access toparts of a site# A researcher*s ascriptive characteristics -a"e, "ender, race1 can limitaccess e#"# a Jlac& researcher cannot study the Afri&aanse eerstand Je'e"in"-AJ1, althou"h some researchers have successfully crossed some ascriptivelines# Physical access to a site can be an issue# ;ites are on a continuum, 'ithopen and public areas at one end -e#"# ta9i ran&s1 and closed private settin"s at theother end -e#"# hospitals, homes1# A researcher may find that there are le"al andpolitical barriers to access# a's and re"ulations in institutions restrict access# 4naddition there may be ethical barriers#

Focusingnce in a site, the ethno"raphic researcher first "ets a "eneral picture, then focuses ona fe' specific issues or problems and develops the research %uestions only after bein"in the filed and e9periencin" first3hand# At first everythin" seems relevantO laterho'ever, selective attention focuses on specific %uestions and themes# ;ee 6i"ure .belo'#

=


8/22

%igure &: %ocusing in field research 'Adapted from (euman &$$)*

Sampling

8thno"raphic researchers use theoretical sampling – i#e# samplin" that is "uided bythe researcher*s developin" theory#

$hey may sample times -i#e# observin" a settin" at different times1O locations -i#e#observe people of interest in different locations to observe different behaviours1Opeople -i#e# different types of people may have similar or opposin" outloo&s on anissue and it is important to elicit and analyse these similarities and differences1Oevents -i#e# routine, special and unanticipated events1#

4n selectin" "ood informants "ive consideration to the follo'in")o ;omeone 'ho is totally familiar 'ith the settin", preferably lives on site,

en"a"es in routine activities and is in a position to 'itness si"nificantevents as they arise#

o ;omeone 'ho is currently involved in the field ma&es a "ood informant –the lon"er someone has been a'ay, the more li&ely it is they havereconstructed their recollections#

o ;omeone 'ho can spend time 'ith the researcher ma&es a "ood

informant – intervie'in" may ta&e many hours, and some people are notavailable for e9tensive intervie'in"

o Non3analytic people ma&e better informants# An analytic person pre3

analyses the settin" and may respond based on their analysis, asopposed to >ust describin" ho' a situation is#

-Neuman .//= pp#0=30=!1

5.3. *ollecting data in ethnogaphic eseach

bservation – once on site, researchers spend a "reat deal of time payin" attention,'atchin", and listenin" carefully# $hey use all their senses, noticin" 'hat is seen,heard, smelled, tasted or touched# $hey observe people and their actions andsocial communication and interaction# $he researcher becomes and instrument thatabsorbs all sources of information# bservations are often tediously detailedbecause "ood ethno"raphic researchers are deeply curious about the details, andare intri"ued about 'hat the details reveal that is of si"nificance# $heseobservations are recorded in detailed field notes#

K

Researcher’s %ocus ofAttention

(ot relevant

(ot +mportant

All details in thefield

Amount of time in the field site


9/22

4ntervie' – the intervie's in ethno"raphic research are usually unstructured, non3directive, open3ended and in3depth# $he intervie' often involves a mutual sharin"of e9periences in order to build trust and encoura"e the informant to open up – butdoes not force ans'ers or use leadin" %uestions# $he researcher encoura"es aprocess of mutual discovery# 4nformants are encoura"ed to e9press themselves in

the 'ay they normally 'ould spea& and the researcher records 'hat 'as said in itsori"inal format, 'ithout repac&a"in" in better* lan"ua"e# 4ntervie's may occur in aseries over time, rather than >ust on one occasion, 'hich allo's for deeper probin"and clarification of issues# $he researcher &eeps an ear out* for mar&ers – i#e# apassin" reference made by the informant to an important feelin" or event#

5.4. +nalysing data in ethnogaphic eseach

$hematic – identify emer"in" themes and sub3themes

5.5. "%amples of ethnogaphic eseach

@aler A -2!1 A45;3tal& in everyday life) the presence of H4V7A45; in men*sinformal conversation in ;outhern Mala'i# "ocial "ciences and ,edicine. Vol#/pp#2K32/=# Available on QR D5#

Dastaneda :arcia D an"er A -.//


10/22

researcher be"ins 'ith a research %uestion and little else# :rounded theory is a "eneralmethodolo"y for developin" theory that is "rounded in data systematically collected andanalysed# $his more inductive method means that theory evolves durin" the actualresearch, throu"h a constant interplay bet'een analysis and data collection# A centralfeature of "rounded theory is constant comparative analysis – as you collect data, youcompare it 'ith each other to be"in to develop the theoryO as the theory be"ins to

emer"e, you compare additional data to the theory and elaborate it or modify it, as thedata su""ests#

($he purpose of "rounded theory is to build a theory that is faithful to the evidence# 4t isa method for discoverin" ne' theory# 4n it the researcher compares unli&e phenomena'ith a vie' to'ards learnin" similarities# He or she sees micro3level events as thefoundation for a more macro3level e9planation# :rounded theory shares several "oals'ith a more positivist3oriented theory# 4t see&s theory that is comparable 'ith theevidence, that is precise and ri"orous, that is capable of replication and that is"eneralisable# A "rounded theory approach pursues "eneralisations by ma&in"comparisons across social situations# -Neuman, .//= p# 00!1

6.1. ,ey featues of gounded theoy eseach

:rounded theory emphasises the development and verification of theory -i#e#emergent theory 1# 4t does not test a hypothesis# 4t sets out to discover the theoryimplicit in the data

Verification of theory proceeds throu"hout of the course of the research pro>ect,rather than assumin" that verification is possible only throu"h follo'3up %uantitativeresearch#

$hrou"h "rounded theory procedures you are able to develop theories that areconceptually dense i#e# have many conceptual relationships# $he researcherproposes concepts, or sets of concepts, and describes the relationships bet'eenconcepts# (:rounded theory researchers are interested in patterns of action andinteraction bet'een and amon" various types of social units -i#e# actors1# ;o theyare not especially interested in creatin" theory about individual actors as such ###-;trauss and Dorbin .//! p# 2=K1

6.2. Similaities and diffeences #ith othe -ualitatie eseach designs

Similarities

;imilar sources of data – intervie's, focus "roup discussions, observations,document revie's -includin" diaries, letters, autobio"raphies, historical accounts,ne'spapers and other media1

4nterpretations include the perspective and voices of the people 'ho are studied Researchers conductin" "rounded theory research, as do other %ualitative

researchers, ta&e responsibility for their o'n interpretive role

Differences

:rounded theory emphasises the development of theory, particularly substantivetheory -i#e# $heories that can in varyin" de"rees be tested and can be supported, ornot, by the data, but can never be conclusively proven1

.


11/22

Verification of theory proceeds throu"hout of the course of the research pro>ect,rather than assumin" that verification is possible only throu"h follo'3up %uantitativeresearch#

$hrou"h "rounded theory procedures are able to develop theories that areconceptually dense i#e# have many conceptual relationships# $he researcherproposes concepts, or sets of concepts, and describes the relationships bet'een

concepts# (:rounded theory researchers are interested in patterns of action andinteraction bet'een and amon" various types of social units -i#e# actors1# ;o theyare not especially interested in creatin" theory about individual actors as such ###-;trauss and Dorbin .//! p# 2=K1# $hey are also concerned about describin"

processes – i#e# ho' patterns are affected by internal and e9ternal conditions#

6.3. Data analysis in gounded theoy

;ystematically identify meanin" units, 'hich are then assi"ned to cate"ories andsub3cate"ories – this is called codin"

As you code, certain theoretical propositions 'ill occur to you# $hese may be about

lin&s bet'een cate"ories, or about a core cate"ory -a cate"ory that appears to becentral to the study1# As the cate"ories and properties emer"e, they and their lin&sto the core cate"ory provide the theory# As the data collection and codin" proceed,more codes and more propositions may be made#

Add to the sample by theoretical samplin" – purposive samplin" 'hich increasesthe diversity of your sample, searchin" for different properties to the theory that isbein" developed#

Bou 'ill reach a point 'here your sample saturates – i#e# you can no lon"er add tothe cate"ories and their properties# $hen you move to sortin"# Bou "roup thepropositions li&e 'ith li&e, and se%uence them in 'hatever order 'ill ma&e thetheory clearest#

Relevant literature is accessed as it becomes necessary, and is compared to the

emer"ent theory in the same 'ay that data is compared to the emer"ent theory#

6.4. "%amples of gounded theoy studies

;?reter ; and oolcoc& M -2!1 Health by associationI ;ocial capital, socialtheory, and the political economy of public health# FAbstractG +nternational ournalof 2pidemiolog1 Vol# 00-!1 pp#


12/22

6.5. &efeences fo this section

;trauss A and Dorbin E -.//!1 :rounded theory methodolo"y) An overvie'#Dhpater .= In) 5en?in N@ and incoln B; 8ditors -.//!1 Handbook of qualitativeresearch. ;a"e# C;A#

Neuman -.//=1 Qualitative Research 5esi"ns# Dhapter .0 In: Neuman

-.//=1 "ocial Research ,ethods: 0ualitative and quantitative approaches. 0

rd

8dition# Allyn and Jacon# C;A#

5ic& J :rounded theory) a thumbnail s&etch# Available onhttp)77'''#scu#edu#au7schools7"cm7ar7arp7"rounded#html Accessed 27..72!

!. "heno#enology$he phenomenolo"ical approach to %ualitative research e9amines (ho' human bein"sconstruct and "ive meanin" to their actions in concrete social situations + Manyresearchers in this tradition use participant observation and intervie'in" as 'ays ofstudyin" the interpretive practices persons use in their daily lives + All &no'led"e isal'ays local, situated in a local culture and embedded in or"anisational sites# $his localculture embodies cultural stereotypes and ideolo"ies, includin" understandin"s aboutrace, class, and "ender, and is part of 'hat 5orothy ;mith -.//01 calls the rulin"apparatuses and relations of rulin" society# -5en?in and incoln .//! p# 2!1#

6undamental to phenomenolo"y are the follo'in" beliefs)

@no'led"e cannot be separated from lived e9perience

Perception is not a passive process, but is as a result of an active construction ofreality

8ach individual*s sub>ective reality is different and the researcher*s tas& is toestablish ho' each individual uses and applies ima"es, theories, ideas, values and

attitudes to e9periences, in order to ma&e them meanin"ful# 4#e# each individual hasa stoc& of &no'led"e 'ith 'hich to interpret e9perience, "rasp the intentions andmotivations of others, achieve understandin", and co3ordinate actions# $hesestoc&s of &no'led"e produce a familiar 'orld# $he myriad phenomena of everydaylife are or"anised into a more limited number of constructs and cate"ories, "eneraland fle9ible "uidelines for understandin" and interpretin" e9perience# $hesetypifications ma&e it possible to account for e9perience, renderin" thin"s andoccurrences reco"nisable as part of a particular type of e9perience# At the sametime typifications are indeterminate, adaptable and modifiable# ;toc&s of &no'led"eare al'ays essentially incomplete, open3ended# Meanin" re%uires the interpretiveapplication of cate"ory to the concrete particulars of a situation#

an"ua"e is the fundamental medium for transmittin" typifications and thereby

meanin"# $his "uides the methods of phenomenolo"y – lan"ua"e can becontrasted 'ith e9periences#

$he ma>ority of one*s e9periences confirm and reinforce the notion that thatindividuals 'ho interact 'ith one another do so in a 'orld that is e9perienced infundamentally the same 'ay by all parties, even thou"h mista&es may be made inapprehension# e assume that others basically e9perience the 'orld as 'e do, andthat therefore 'e can understand one another in our dealin"s and in the 'orld# eta&e our sub>ectivity for "ranted, presumin" that 'e inter3sub>ectively share the

.2

http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/arp/grounded.htmlhttp://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/arp/grounded.htmlhttp://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/arp/grounded.html


13/22

same reality# 4nter3sub>ectivity is an on"oin" accomplishment, a set ofunderstandin"s sustained from moment to moment by participants in interaction#

Phenomenolo"y helps to e9plain human thou"ht and action throu"h descriptions ofthe foundational structures the lived reality in the natural settin"# $he sub>ectivelived e9perience is the topic for investi"ation

!.1. "%amples of phenomenological studies

Partis M -201 Hope in homeless people) a phenomenolo"ical study# 4rimar1Health Care Research and /evelopment Vol#!-.1 pp#/32

Pifer 5A -21 :ettin" in $rouble) $he meanin" of school for problem children#-he 0ualitative Report Vol# -.21# FAvailable online)http)77'''#nova#edu7ssss7QR3.7pifer#html G Accessed on) /th November 2!

!.2. &efeences fo this section

5en?in and incoln -.//!1 ;trate"ies of en%uiry# In) 5en?in N@ and incoln B;8ditors -.//!1 Handbook of qualitative research. ;a"e# C;A#

Holstein EA and :ubrium E6 Phenomenolo"y, ethnomethodolo"y and interpretivepractice# Dhapter .< In) 5en?in N@ and incoln B; 8ditors -.//!1 Handbook ofqualitative research. ;a"e# C;A#

Ma""s3Rapport 6 -2.1 (Jest research practice*) in pursuit of methodolo"icalri"our# ournal of Advanced (ursing Vol#0-01 pp# 0=030K0

Van Manen M -221 Phenomenolo"ical 4n%uiry FAvailable online)http)77'''#phenomenolo"yonline#com7in%uiry7.#html G Accessed) 2/ November 2!

$. "articipatory researchParticipatory research methods have their basis in (an emer"in" 'orldvie', moreholistic, pluralist, and e"alitarian, that is essentially participative + $his 'orld vie' seeshuman bein"s as co3creatin" their reality throu"h participation) throu"h their e9perience,their ima"ination and intuition, their thin&in" and action# -Reason .//! p# 02!1

(Participatory research is distin"uished by t'o characteristics) the relationship bet'eenthe people involved in the research, and the use of research as a tool for action ### $hus,the conventional roles of researcher -e9pert1 and sub>ects -nave ob>ects una'are of theresearch hypothesis1 are chan"ed# Participatory research encoura"es the activeparticipation of people 'ho the research is intended to assist# 4n this 'ay, it empo'ers

the people to be involved in all aspects of a pro>ect, includin" the plannin" andimplementation of the research and any solutions that emer"e from the research +$o"ether and as e%ual players, the participants investi"ate ythe problem and itsunderlyin" causes -includin" socio3economic, political and cultural factors1 and then ta&ecollective action in order to brin" about lon"3term solutions to the problems# -Jless andHi"son3;mith .// p# 1

.0

http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR5-1/pifer.htmlhttp://www.phenomenologyonline.com/inquiry/1.htmlhttp://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR5-1/pifer.htmlhttp://www.phenomenologyonline.com/inquiry/1.html


14/22

$.1. +ppoaches to paticipatoy eseach

Reason -.//!1 distin"uishes bet'een three approaches to participatory research, 'hichemphasise different aspects of the participatory research process#

Do3operative in%uiry -participatory research1

Participatory action research -PAR1 Action in%uiry -or action3research1

$.2. *oopeatie in-uiy (paticipatoy eseach)

Do3operative in%uiry has its roots in humanistic psycholo"y and re"ards researchsub>ects as self3determinin" persons -authors of their o'n actions1, 'ho are able to beincluded in the research process, and need to be informed by the &no'led"e that theresearch "enerates#

(;o in co3operative in%uiry all those involved in the research are both co3researchers,'hose thin&in" and decision ma&in" contribute to "eneratin" ideas, desi"nin" and

mana"in" the pro>ect, and dra'in" conclusions from e9perience, and also co3sub>ects,participatin" in the activity bein" researched#

4deally there is full reciprocity + his does not necessarily mean that all those involved inthe in%uiry enterprise contribute in identical 'ays + people 'ill ta&e on different roles,and there 'ill be differences in both the %uality and %uantity of members* contributions#

4n particular, one or more members may have initiated the in%uiry as part of theiror"anisational role, or more informallyO these members or others may act as facilitatorsof the in%uiry process# Ho' the "roup mana"es these potential differences in po'er 'illaffect the %uality of its 'or& +

4deally full consensus 'ill be reached on all decisions, FbutG this is rarely practicalO atminimum, everyone involved needs to be initiated into the in%uiry process and needs to"ive free and informed assent to all decisions about process and outcome# -Reason.//! p# 02


15/22

Phase 2 – $he "roup then applies these ideas and procedures in their everyday lifeand 'or&) they initiate the a"reed actions and observe and record the outcomes oftheir o'n and each other*s behaviour# $his phase involves practical &no'led"e#

Phase 0 – $he co3researchers 'ill in all probability become fully immersed in thisactivity and e9perience + they may sometimes for"et that they are involved in anin%uiry process + or they may stumble on une9pected and unpredictable

e9periences and develop creative ne' insi"hts# $his sta"e of full immersion isfundamental to the 'hole process + $his phase mainly involves e9periential&no'led"e#

Phase ! – After an appropriate period en"a"ed in Phases 2 and 0, the co3researchers return to consider the ori"inal research propositions and hypotheses, inthe li"ht of e9perience, modifyin", reformulatin", and re>ectin" them, adoptin" ne'hypotheses, and so on# $hey may also amend and develop their researchprocedures more fully to record their e9perience# $hus this phase involves a criticalreturn to propositional &no'in"#

Validity in co-operative inquiry

Validity in co3operative in%uiry is dependant on (critical sub>ectivity -IbidI.1 i#e# hi"h%uality, critical, self3a'are, discriminatin", and informed >ud"ements of the co3researchers# Dritical sub>ectivity means that 'e do not suppress our primarysub>ective e9perience, that 'e accept our &no'in" is from a perspectiveO it alsomeans that 'e are a'are of that perspective and of its bias, and 'e articulate it inour communications# (Dritical sub>ectivity involves a self3refle9ive attention to the"round on 'hich one is standin"# -Ibid. p# 02=1

Validity of co3operative in%uiry is threatened by una'are pro>ection* – 'here 'edeceive ourselves because in%uirin" carefully and critically into those thin"s 'e careabout is an an9iety3provo&in" business that stirs up out psycholo"ical defences#

Validity is also threatened by consensus collusion* – 'here co3researchers may

band to"ether as a "roup in defence of their an9ieties, so that areas of theire9perience that challen"e their 'orld vie' are i"nored or not properly e9plored#

$.3. Paticipatoy action eseach (P+&)

(Participatory action research -PAR1 is probably the most 'idely practiced participatoryresearch approachO it is important because it emphasises the political aspects of&no'led"e production# -Reason .//!, p# 02=702K1

PAR may be placed 'ithin the tradition of liberationist movements# (4t starts 'ithconcerns about po'er and po'erlessness, and aims to confront the 'ay in 'hich theestablished and po'er3holdin" elements of society 'orld'ide are favoured because they

hold a monopoly on the definition and employment of &no'led"e# Doncerns forepistemolo"y and methodolo"y appear secondary to this primary concern# A secondimportant startin" point is the lived e9perience of people, and the idea that throu"h theactual e9perience of somethin" 'e may (intuitively apprehend its essenceO 'e feel,

Presentational &no'led"e is the process by 'hich 'e first order our tacit e9periential &no'led"einto patterns -ima"es, dreams, stories, creative ima"ination1# 4t is often a brid"e bet'eene9periential &no'led"e and propositional &no'led"e

.


16/22

en>oy and understand its reality + $hus in PAR the &no'led"e and e9perience ofpeople – often oppressed "roups – is directly honoured and valued#

;o the PAR strate"y has a double ob>ective# ne aim is to produce &no'led"e andaction directly useful to a "roup of people – throu"h research, adult education, andsocio3political action# $he second aim is to empo'er people at a second and deeper

level throu"h the process of constructin" and usin" their o'n &no'led"e) $he (seethrou"h the 'ays in 'hich the establishment monopolises the production and use of&no'led"e for the benefit of its members# $his is the meanin" of consciousness raisin"or conscientisation, a term popularised by Paulo 6reire -./=1 for a (process of self3a'areness throu"h collective self3in%uiry and reflection# A third important startin" pointfor PAR is authentic commitment# PAR values the processes of "enuine collaboration,'hich it sees as (rooted in cultural traditions of the common people + 'hich areresplendent 'ith feelin"s and attitudes of an altruistic, cooperative and communal natureand 'hich are "enuinely democratic + $hose a"ents of chan"e 'ho initiate PARprocesses amon" oppressed people must embrace a "enuine commitment to 'or& 'iththese democratic values and honour the 'isdom of the people# A &ey notion + isdialo"ue, because it is throu"h dialo"ue that the sub>ect3ob>ect relationship of traditional

science "ives 'ay to a sub>ect3sub>ect one, in 'hich the academic &no'led"e of formallyeducated people 'or&s in dialectical tension 'ith the popular &no'led"e of the people toproduce a more profound understandin" of the situation# -Reason .//!, p#02K1

Methods in PAR

(PAR is a methodology for an alternate system of &no'led"e production based on thepeople*s role in settin" the a"endas, participatin" in the data "atherin" and analysis, andcontrollin" the use of the outcomes# $he PAR methodolo"y may use diverse methods,both %uantitative and %ualitative, to further these ends, many of 'hich 'ill derive fromvernacular -often oral1 traditions of communication and dissemination of &no'led"e +6urther, in &eepin" 'ith the emphasis on PAR in%uiry as empo'erment, the actual

methodolo"ies that in orthodo9 research 'ould be called research desi"n, data"atherin", data analysis, and so on ta&e second place to the emer"ent processes ofcollaboration and dialo"ue that empo'er, motivate, increase self3esteem and developcommunity solidarity +

Dommunity meetin"s and events of various &inds are an important part of PAR, servin"to identify issues, to reclaim a sense of community and emphasise the potential forliberation, to ma&e sense of information collected, to reflect on the pro"ress of thepro>ect, and to develop the ability of the community to continue the PAR anddevelopmental process# $hese meetin"s en"a"e in a variety of activities that are in&eepin" 'ith the culture of the community + $hus storytellin", socio3drama, plays ands&its, puppets, son"s, dra'in" and paintin", and other en"a"in" activities encoura"e a

social validation of (ob>ective* data that cannot be obtained throu"h the orthodo9processes of survey and field'or 4t is important for an oppressed "roup, 'hich may bepart of a culture of silence based on centuries of oppression, to find 'ays to tell their andthus reclaim their o'n story +

PAR may also use methodolo"y that loo&s more (orthodo9) $he systematic "atherin"of information, for e9ample, throu"h survey techni%ues, and then ma&in" sense of it from

.


17/22

the perspective of the community is often an important source of people*s &no'led"eand empo'erment# -Reason .//!, p# 02/1

$.4. +ction in-uiy (o actioneseach)

(Participatory research is not al'ays action3research, althou"h action3research is al'aysparticipatory# -Jless and Hi"son3;mith .//1 5en?in and incoln -.//!1 place actionresearch 'ithin the fifth moment*2 of the history of %ualitative research – 'here%ualitative research is embracin" more action3oriented, small3scale theories fitted forspecific problems 'ithin specific situations# $he focus in action3research is on theactivity# 4t is a form of study into practice# Accordin" to $orbet -./K., in Reason, .//!1action3research is not (a reflective science about action, + -but1 an action science-p001 concerned 'ith the development of "enuinely 'ell3informed action# $hus themain aim of action3research is the development of effective action, the improvement ofpractice, and the implementation of effective chan"e as measured by specific outcomes#-;aranta&os, .//0O Reason, .//!O Hamilton, .//!O Jaum, .//O aterman, .//KO 5ic&,.///O Hampshire, 21

Action3research proceeds in a self3reflective cyclical 'ay, alternatin" bet'een action andreflection# Reason -.//!1 describes ! phases in the cycle of action3reflection# 4n Phase. co3researchers identify an area for research and ma&e some initial propositions aboutho' the research 'ill proceed# 4n Phase 2 these ideas are applied in everyday life and'or $he a"reed actions are initiated and the outcomes observed and recorded# 4nPhase 0 co3researchers become fully immersed in the activity# $hey may continue tomaintain their interest and enthusiasm, or not# $hey may continue to record, or not#$hey may (stumble on une9pected and unpredicted e9periences and develop creativene' insi"hts# -p02


18/22

4n the co3operative nature of action3research, the research process involves a "roup ofpeople# Jut there are variants in ho' these action3research "roups interact and ho'they en"a"e in the action3research process#

6irstly, a "roup of practitioners may come to"ether -either facilitated or self3directed1in the tradition of action3learnin" -Revans, ./K01 or reflective practice -Ar"yris and

;chon, ./=!O ;chon, ./K0O ;chon, ./K=1 for the e9plicit purpose of improvin" theirpractice# $heir concern is to find solutions to problems that confront them in theirdaily 'or $hese problems occur in comple9 situations, characterised byuncertainty, instability, uni%ueness and value conflict, and have no perceivedsolution# Althou"h individuals meet in a "roup, the process is primarily aimed ateach individual developin" a more effective practice# $hese individuals brin" to the"roup the problems they are faced 'ith, usin" an intuitive creativity inconceptualisin" them and in proposin" solutions# $hey also brin" their reflections ontheir actions# ;chon -./K0, ./K=1 identified t'o types of reflection# $he first is 'hathe calls reflection3in3action, a &ind of intuitive, tacit &no'led"e, thin&in" about 'hatyou are doin" 'hile you are doin" it* that an individual employs in the midst of asituation# $he second is reflection3on3action, the process of ma&in" sense of an

action after it has occurred, in order to learn from the e9perience, throu"h theassistance of members of the in%uiry "roup# $his reflection is a conscious process'here practitioners thin& about 'hat underlyin" thou"hts and assumptions "uidedtheir behaviour, and critically analyse the thou"ht processes#

Alternatively, an operational team may come to"ether as an action3research team,for the purpose of findin" solutions to operational problems that hinder theeffectiveness of the service they provide# perational, action3research processesoften be"in 'ith a re%uest for assistance, follo'ed by a ne"otiation phase, in 'hichthe "oals and broad frame'or& for the study are developed -Jless and Hi"son3;mith, .//1# hen initiated in this 'ay the research process is usually facilitated#$he e9tent of facilitator involvement may vary, alon" the continuum bet'een

technical7e9perimental approaches, 'here the facilitator7researcher plays the ma>orrole, and emancipatory7empo'erin" approaches, 'here the focus is on practitionercontrol -Hampshire, 21# $he research is conducted throu"h a cyclical processthat alternates bet'een action and reflection, a constant iterative process ofcollectin" data, feedin" it bac&, actin" on the information, reflectin" on the action,evaluatin" it and modifyin" action 'here necessary# Action3research conducted inthis 'ay has been used successfully to brin" about or"anisational chan"e, andimprove service provision in industry, education and health -Hampshire, 21#

$.5. "%amples of paticipatoy eseach

Mathe's D et al. -.//1 earnin" to listen) 6ormative research in the developmentof A45; education for secondary school students# FAbstractG "ocial "cience and,edicine Vol# !.-.21 pp#.=.3.=2!

ee P$ and @rause N -221 $he impact of a 'or&er health study on 'or&in"conditions# FAbstractG ournal of 4ublic Health 4olic1 Vol# 20-01 pp#2


19/22

Moris&y 58 An" A Doly A $i"lao $V -2!1 A model H4V7A45; reductionpro"ramme in the Philippines) a comprehensive community3based approachthrou"h participatory action research# FAbstractG Health promotion internationalVol# ./ -.1 pp#


20/22

%. Evaluation research

/.1. Definition of ealuation

$o evaluate means to assess the value of somethin"# (8valuation is li&e loo&in" to see'here and ho' fast you are "oin", and then estimatin" 'hen you are li&ely to reach yourdestination -6euerstein ./K< p#01

$he purposes for conductin" evaluations include -6euerstein ./K< p#2301)

Assessin" achievement -seein" 'hat has been achieved1

Measurin" pro"ress -in accordance 'ith the ob>ectives of the pro"ramme1

4mprovin" monitorin" -for better mana"ement1

4dentifyin" stren"ths and 'ea&nesses -to stren"then the pro"ramme1

;eein" if the effort 'as effective -'hat difference has the pro"ramme made1

Dost benefit -'ere the costs reasonable1

Dollectin" information -to plan and mana"e pro"ramme activities better1

;harin" e9periences -to prevent others ma&in" the same mista&es or to encoura"ethem to use similar methods1

4mprovin" effectiveness -to have more impact1

Allo'in" for better plannin" -more in line 'ith the needs of the people, especially atcommunity level1

/.2. Types of ealuation

Quantitative vs# %ualitative evaluation) 8very evaluation deals 'ith thin"s that canbe counted and7or measured# $hese are the %uantitative aspects of evaluation#$here are many factors that influence pro"ramme success or failure 'hich relate to

the %uality of 'hat of 'hat is bein" evaluated -people*s behaviour, abilities,attitudes, values and motivations, and ho' people relate to one another and to thepro"ramme1 – these areSthe %ualitative aspects of evaluation# -6euerstein ./K


21/22

4nternal vs# e9ternal evaluations) an internal evaluator is someone 'ho is inside thepro"ramme, or 'ho &no's the pro"ramme very 'ell# An internal evaluator may betoo sub>ective# An e9ternal evaluator is someone 'ho is not personally involved inthe pro"ramme and has nothin" to "ain or lose from evaluatin" the pro"ramme –s7he is less li&ely to be sub>ective and more li&ely to be able to produce anob>ective7unbiased evaluation#

/.3. "aluation models

:oal3free evaluation – the "oals of the pro"ramme are not &no'n to the evaluator#6ield3'or& is conducted and data "athered on a broad array of actual effects andoutcomes of a pro"ramme, and comparin" these observed effects and outcomes'ith the actual needs of pro"ramme participants# $he evaluator ma&es a deliberateattempt to avoid all rhetoric related to pro"ramme "oalsO no discussion about "oalsis held 'ith staffO no pro"ramme proposals or brochures are readO only thepro"rammes* observable outcomes and documentable effects are studied in relationto participant needs#

$ransaction models) responsive and illuminative evaluation – includes the follo'in"&ey elements) -.1 identification of issues and concerns based on direct, face3to3facecontact 'ith people in and around the pro"rammeO -21 Cse of pro"rammedocuments to further identify important issuesO -01 direct, personal observations ofpro"ramme activities before formally desi"nin" the evaluation to increase theevaluator*s understandin" of 'hat is important in the pro"ramme, and 'hat can andshould be evaluatedO -!1 desi"nin" the evaluation based on issues that emer"ed onthe three precedin" steps, 'ith the desi"n to include continuin" direct %ualitativeobservations in the naturalistic pro"ramme settin"O -1 Reportin" information, indirect personal contact throu"h themes and portrayals that are easilyunderstandable and rich in descriptionO -


22/22

decidin" ho' the results 'ill be used# $hus the capacity of participants is built tore"ularly carry out periodic -monitorin"1 evaluations#

Appreciative in%uiry – a developmental approach that emphasises buildin" anor"anisation*s assets rather than focusin" on problems and problem solvin"# 4t isbased on the premise that or"anisations are affirmative systems created byhuman&ind as solutions to problems# 4t is an approach to analysis that leads to

or"anisational learnin" and creativity#

/.4. &efeences fo this section

Patton MQ -221 Particularly appropriate %ualitative applications# Part . Dhapter !In: Patton MQ -221 0ualitative research and evaluation methods. 0rd 8dition#;a"e Publications# C;A#

6euerstein M$ -./K

choosing and developing qualitative research designs

Documents