CHINESE MARKET GARDENING IN

AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND, 1860s–1960s:

A STUDY IN TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

A thesis submitted for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy of the

University of New England, Armidale

February 2014

Joanna Frances Boileau

BA, MA(Hons), University of Auckland

Graduate Diploma in Local, Family and Applied History,

University of New England

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly I thank my husband Kevin McCready for his support, encouragement and

forbearance throughout my candidature. He also contributed his expertise in Chinese language

issues, assisting with translations of Chinese research material. Secondly my sincere thanks go

to my supervisors, Associate Professor Janis Wilton and Dr Andrew Piper, who kept me on

track and provided invaluable support, guidance and constructive criticism throughout the

preparation of this thesis. My thanks also to Geoff Dawson for his proof reading and

thoughtful comments on the final draft.

Many people assisted my research, and were extremely generous in sharing their

knowledge and expertise. In New Zealand they are John Adam, Hans Dieter Bader and Janice

Adamson, Dr James Beattie, Ruth Lam, Lily Lee, Nigel Murphy, Dr Jim Ng, Dr Helen Leach,

David Reynolds, Dr Neville Ritchie, Lynette Shum, Lisa Truttman and Adrienne Wing. In

particular, Ruth Lam and Lily Lee were extremely helpful in sharing the knowledge they

gained in writing their own work on Chinese market gardening in New Zealand and giving me

access to the oral history interviews they conducted around the country as well as other

research material. In Australia they are Sophie Couchman, Kate Bagnall, Pauline Curby,

Daphne Lowe Kelly, Paul Macgregor, Barry McGowan, Kevin Raines, Sandi Robb, Karla

Whitmore and Hu Zejia. In China, Bruce Liu assisted with translations of Chinese language

material. I am also indebted to the Chinese-Australians and Chinese-New Zealanders who I

interviewed, and who were so generous in sharing their memories of market gardening. In

Australia they are Gordon Ha, Wayne Chew and Herb Lowe. In New Zealand they are George

Sue and Shirley Sidnam.

Many other people assisted in providing research material and access to library and

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museum collections. My sincere thanks go to Mary Archbold, Anne Dunstan, Peter

Pendlebury and volunteers of the Donald History and Natural History Group, Donald,

Victoria; Associate Professor Ian Jack, University of Sydney; Jenni Kemarre Martiniello,

Director, Kemarre Arts; Andrea Phippen, Ryde City Libraries; and Bozena Wojcik, City of

Whittlesea Council. In New Zealand, I would particularly like to thank David Clarke, Director,

Lakes District Museum, Arrowtown, and Eva Garbutt, North Otago Museum, Oamaru. The

staff of the following libraries and archives were all very helpful in assisting with my research

queries. In New Zealand: Auckland City Library and Auckland University Library in

Auckland; the Alexander Turnbull Library and Archives New Zealand in Wellington; and the

Hocken Library, Dunedin. In Australia: the City of Sydney Archives, State Library of New

South Wales and Mitchell Library in Sydney; the National Library of Australia and National

Archives in Canberra; the Queensland State Library, in Brisbane; and the State Library of

Victoria in Melbourne.

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ABSTRACT

Chinese market gardeners were widely dispersed across rural areas of Australia and New

Zealand by the late-nineteenth century and could be found in the most marginal areas for

agriculture, from the rugged ranges of Central Otago to the deserts of Australia. Adapting

practices they brought with them from China, particularly their skills in water management

and intensive cultivation, and adopting developments in European technology, they

successfully turned the challenges of life in such environments to their advantage. This thesis

explores the history of Chinese market gardens and market gardeners in Australia and New

Zealand from the 1860s to the 1960s. It interprets that history through the use and adaptation

of some key theoretical and conceptual approaches in the social sciences: technology transfer

and the diffusion of innovation, transnationalism and social capital. Applying these

conceptual approaches, this study positions Chinese market gardeners and the agricultural

practices they brought to new lands within the particular environmental, economic and social

contexts they encountered and explores how the history of Chinese market gardening in

Australia and New Zealand was shaped by such factors as political and legal institutions as

well as organisational structures. It places this history within the context of longer term

processes of social, economic, environmental and technological change. This study also

interprets the history of Chinese market gardening as a process of ongoing interactions

between different knowledge systems – indigenous, European and Chinese horticultural

traditions. The study reveals remarkable continuity in traditional Chinese horticultural

methods and how, at the same time, Chinese market gardening underwent technological

change and adaptation in new environments.

.

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DECLARATION

I certify that the substance of this thesis has not already been submitted for any

degree and is not currently being submitted for any other degree or qualification.

I certify that any help received in preparing this dissertation and all sources used

have been acknowledged in this dissertation.

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A NOTE ON ROMANISATION OF CHINESE

Many different systems for the Romanisation of Chinese characters have been adopted

over the years. In this work I have used Mandarin Pinyin for the spelling of place names and

personal names of well-known historical figures. Mandarin Pinyin was introduced in China in

1958, superseding earlier Romanisation systems such as Wade-Giles.1 However, the

overwhelming majority of Chinese immigrants to Australia and New Zealand in the nineteenth

century spoke various dialects of Cantonese. There are several systems for the Romanisation

of Cantonese, and usage has developed informally in Australia and New Zealand, often

combining elements from different systems.2 This makes it difficult to maintain a consistent

approach, particularly where personal names are concerned. In most cases I have followed the

Romanisation used by the authors of works in which personal names are cited, which

generally reflects the common usage of individuals and families. Similarly where authors use

the original Wade- Giles spelling when citing the works of Chinese scholars and poets from

early Chinese dynasties (prior to the Republican era which began in 1912), I have retained the

Wade-Giles spelling. I have also included the common Cantonese Romanisations for the major

districts of origin of Chinese immigrants, in brackets, at the first mention.

A NOTE ON MĀORI SPELLING

Māori is an official language of Aotearoa New Zealand. The Māori Language

Commission has made efforts to reverse the dominance of the majority English language, for

example by recommending that Māori words not be italicised when used within English text.

Other conventions are not adding an ‘s’ to pluralise Māori words and marking long vowels

with a macron, as a guide to pronunciation.3 I have followed these conventions in this work.

1 Developed in the nineteenth century by Thomas Wade and later H. A. Giles. Benjamin Ao, ‘History and Prospect of Chinese Romanization’, Chinese Librarianship: An International Electronic Journal, December 1997, http://www.white–clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl4ao.htm, accessed 20 September 2011

2 Henry Chan (ed.), Zengcheng New Zealanders: A History for the 80th Anniversary of the Tung Jung Association of NZ Inc., Katoomba, 2007, p.ii.; Lily Lee and Ruth Lam, Sons of the Soil: Chinese Market Gardeners in New Zealand, Pukekohe, 2012, p. 11.

3 Māori Language Commission, Guidelines for Māori Language Orthography, Wellington, 2012, p. 4; Janet Hughes and Derek Wallace, Fit to Print: The Writing and Editing Style Guide for Aotearoa New Zealand, Wellington, 2010, pp. 181–2.

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CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii ABSTRACT iv DECLARATION v A NOTE ON ROMANISATION OF CHINESE vi A NOTE ON MĀORI SPELLING vi FIGURES ix TABLES x

INTRODUCTION 1

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER 2 MULTIDISCIPLINARY APPROACHES 9 CHINESE DIASPORA STUDIES 19 The Chinese diaspora: concepts and approaches 19

The Chinese in Australia and New Zealand 23 Chinese market gardening in Australia and New Zealand 29

SOURCES 37 THIS STUDY 41

CHAPTER 1 THE HUMAN RESOURCE 46

CHINESE AND BRITISH MIGRATION TO THE ANTIPODES 47 CHINESE HORTICULTURAL TRADITIONS 54

Field systems and multicropping 59 Manuring 60 Individual care of plants 62 Irrigation 64

BRITISH HORTICULTURAL TRADITIONS 68 INDIGENOUS HORTICULTURAL TRADITIONS 77 CHINESE HORTICULTURE IN THE ANTIPODES 79 CONCLUSION 84

CHAPTER 2 THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 86

HOME SOIL: THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT OF SOUTHERN CHINA 87 NEW SOILS: THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS OF AUSTRALIA 89 AND NEW ZEALAND CHINESE GARDENS IN NEW LANDS 95 FROM MONSOON TO DESERT 104

The Australian tropics: Queensland and the Northern Territory 105 The semi-arid and arid zones: western New South Wales and South Australia 114 The cool temperate zone: New Zealand and Tasmania 121

CONCLUSION 130

CHAPTER 3 THE ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT 132

AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND: SETTLER SOCIETIES IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE 134

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GARDENING ON THE GOLDFIELDS 141 AFTER THE GOLD WAS GONE 150 THE ECONOMICS OF MARKET GARDENING 164

Capital 165 Labour 175 Land 183 Markets and prices 192 Marketing strategies 199

CONCLUSION 206

CHAPTER 4 TECHNOLOGY AND INDUSTRY 209

MARKET GARDENING AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER 210 CONSERVATISM, INNOVATION AND THE DIFFUSION OF IDEAS 216 TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE IN MARKET GARDENING 225

Gardening implements 225 Motor vehicles and tractors 233 Motor vehicle and agricultural equipment manufacturers 237 Transport 241 Water storage and irrigation equipment 246 Fertilisers 255 Pest control 263 New growing methods 266 Seeds and new crop varieties 267 Built structures 276

CONCLUSION 284

CHAPTER 5 THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT 287

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AND SOCIAL CAPITAL 288 BONDING SOCIAL CAPITAL 289

Chinese market gardeners and their homeland 290 Chinese market gardeners within the Chinese community 296

BRIDGING THE CULTURAL DIVIDE 305 Aliens, heathens and criminals or law abiding, industrious citizens? 306 Interactions in the local community 317

CONCLUSION 352

CONCLUSION 356

BIBLIOGRAPHY 364

PRIMARY SOURCES 364 Publications 364 Oral histories 369 Newspapers 373 SECONDARY SOURCES 374

APPENDIX 419

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FIGURES

1 Map of Victoria and New South Wales showing locations of market gardens xi

and major river systems.

2 Map of Queensland showing locations o9f Chinese market gardens mentioned xii

in the text.

3 Map of New Zealand showing locations of market gardens mentioned in the xiii

text.

4 Map of southern New Zealand showing locations of Chinese market gardens xiv

mentioned in the text.

5 Map of Auckland region showing locations of market gardens mentioned xv

in the text.

1.1 Map of Guangdong showing counties of the Pearl River delta region. 49

1.2 Chain pump in use in southern China, 1909-1910. 67

1.3 Aerial photograph of Chinese market garden site, Whittlesea, Victoria, 83

January 2007.

2.1 Map of Australia showing zones of average annual rainfall. 92

2.2 Simplified sequence of European settlement in Australia. 92

2.3 Chinese market gardeners in their garden on Great North Road, Western 104

Springs, Auckland, early 1900s.

2.4 Chinese-Australian in his market garden, Northern Territory, c. 1930. 112

2.5 View of Arrowtown Chinese camp overlooking the Arrow River. 123

3.1 Chinese market gardens in South Dunedin, 1905. 169

3.2 Detail of the Tanyard Gully gardens in Parnell operated by Chan Dah Chee. 173

4.1 Gordon Ha and his cousin working on their market garden in Botany, Sydney, 226

July 2011.

4.2 Chinese hoe and rake, collection of Hay Goal Museum, Hay. 228

4.3 Gardening rake adapted from a sluicing rake, recovered during a survey of 230

the site of Ah Toy's Garden, far north Queensland.

4.4 Chinese harrow, collection of Museum of the Riverina, Wagga Wagga. 231

4.5 A tractor and truck loaded with crates of produce at the Ding family market 237

garden in Outram, west of Dunedin, c. 1961.

4.6 Advertisement for demonstration of Planet Junior farm implements. 238

4.7 Bilingual advertisement for Ransomes Crawler garden tractor. 240

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4.8 Chinese language advertisement for Manly Ford. 241

4.9 Chinese language advertisement for Automobile Maintenance Association. 241

4.10 A foot-powered chain pump in use in South Dunedin, early 1900s. 250

4.11 Clutterbuck oil engine, Donald Agricultural Museum, Victoria. 255

4.12 Cover of Te Aro Seeds Limited Garden Annual, 1949–1950. 274

4.13 Bilingual advertisement for F. M. Winston Seeds. 275

4.14 Dwelling and sheds on a Chinese market garden in Hawthorn, Melbourne, 278

c. 1910–1919.

4.15 Plan of tents and gardens on the Andersons Hill diggings, Victoria, late 1860s, 283

drawn by Ah Siug Jong.

5.1 ‘The Chinaman on top again', William Blomfield, cartoon in New Zealand 308

Observer and Free Lance, 1892.

5.2 Ah Lum in his Arrowtown garden, with local resident George Romans. 319

5.3 Chinese-English pronunciation guide and phrase book, owned by Georgie 320

Ah Ling.

5.4 Chinese community float in VJ Day Parade, Oamaru, 1945. 332

TABLES

3.1: Acreages of market gardens as a percentage of all land under crop: NSW, 138

Victoria and Queensland, 1860–1930.

3.2: Market gardeners in NSW and Victoria, 1891 and 1901. 139

3.3: Market gardeners in New Zealand, 1871–1936. 140

3.4: Rural and urban Chinese populations, NSW, Victoria and Queensland, 151

1861–1901, compared to general population.

3.5: New Zealand: relative populations, North and South Island, 1864–1916. 155

3.6: Major occupations of Chinese males in NSW, Victoria and Queensland, 159

1891 and 1901.

3.7: Major Chinese occupations as a percentage of the Chinese workforce in 160

New Zealand, 1871–1936.

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Figure 1: Map of Victoria and New South Wales showing locations of Chinese market gardens mentioned in the text, and major river systems. [Adapted from Barry McGowan, ‘Chinese market gardens

Southern and Western NSW', Australian Humanities Review, Issue 36, 2005, Fig. 1.]

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Figure 2: Map of Queensland showing locations of Chinese market gardens mentioned in the text.

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Figure 3: Map of New Zealand showing locations of market gardens mentioned in the text.

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Figure 4: Map of southern New Zealand (Otago, Fiordland and Southland) showing locations of Chinese market gardens mentioned in the text.

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Figure 5: Map of Auckland region showing locations of market gardens mentioned in the text.