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22 STORY OF FLIGHT IIJet aircraft

24 BOEING 747How an aeroplane flies • Controlling lift

26 INSIDE AN AIRLINER Flight deck controls • Jet engines

S P A C E T R A V E L

28 SPACE TRAVEL IRocket engines • The Moon missions

30 SPACE TRAVEL IISpace shuttle • Future space travel

32 INDEX

CONTENTS

S T E A M P O W E R

4 STEAM ENGINESEarly engines • James Watt’s steam engine

R A I L T R A N S P O R T

6 STEAM TRAINSHow a steam locomotive works • Spread of the railways

8 MODERN TRAINSInside a TGV

W A T E R T R A N S P O R T

10 SAILING SHIPSEarly vessels

12 STEAMSHIPSThe first steamships • Ocean liners

14 MODERN SHIPSParts of a ship • Aircraft carrier

15 SUBMARINES

R O A D T R A N S P O R T

16 HISTORY OF CARSInternal combustion engine • The Motor Agebegins • Early land-speed record-holders

18 MODERN CARSInside a racing car • Aerodynamics

19 BICYCLESMotorcycles

A I R T R A N S P O R T

20 STORY OF FLIGHT I

21 HELICOPTERS

C O N T E N T S

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First published in 2009 by Orpheus Books Ltd., 6 Church Green, Witney, Oxfordshire OX28 4AW England

www.orpheusbooks.com

Copyright © 2009 Orpheus Books Ltd

Created and produced by Orpheus Books Ltd

Text Christopher Oxlade

Illustrators Elisabetta Ferrero, Giuliano Fornari, Lee Montgomery, Steve Noon, Nicki Palin, Sebastian Quigley, Alessandro Rabatti,

Colin Rose, Ivan Stalio, Roger Stewart, Thomas Trojer, Alan Weston,Martin Woodward, David Wright

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in aretrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior

written permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN 978 1 905473 58 8

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library.

Printed and bound in Singapore

C O N T E N T S

2

JOB NO:E7-05129 TITLE:TECHNOLOGY & TRANSPORT150# DTP:39 PAGE:5(AB)UK Text

JOB NO:E7-05129 TITLE:TECHNOLOGY & TRANSPORT150# DTP:39 PAGE:4 (AB)UK Text

W AT T ’ S I M P R O V E M E N T SSteam engine design was greatly improvedin the 1770s by Scottish engineer JamesWatt. He realised that Newcomen’s enginewas very inefficient because the cylinderwas heated and cooled on every cycle. SoWatt built his own engine, which becamepopular for powering industrial machinery,such as spinning and weaving machines.

Steam engines are still used today inpower stations in the form of the steamturbine, where high-pressure steam makes afan-like turbine spin at high speed.

S T E A M P O W E R

5

STEAM ENGINES

AN ENGINE is a machine that convertsthe energy stored in fuel into energy

for operating other machines. In a steamengine, burning fuel heats water in a boiler,turning it to steam, which builds up in theboiler. The pressurized steam is used tooperate the moving parts of the engine. Inthe first century AD, the Greek inventorHero built a device that was turned by jetsof steam, but it was a curiosity rather than auseful machine.The first steam-powered machine was

built in 1698 by English engineer ThomasSavery. It was designed to pump water fromflooded mines, but was never actually used.In Savery’s engine, steam from the boilerfilled a large cylinder. Then cold water waspoured over the outside of the cylinder,which cooled it, making the steamcondense (turn back to liquid water). Thiscreated a vacuum in the cylinder, whichsucked in water from the mine through apipe. More steam was fed to the cylinder topush the water up an outlet pipe.

In 1712 another English engineer,Thomas Newcomen, also completed asteam engine for pumping mine water. InNewcomen’s engine, steam from the boilerwent along pipes to a cylinder, where itspressure pushed a piston upwards. Then coldwater was sprayed into the cylinder, whichmade the steam condense. This reduced thepressure in the cylinder, and the pressure ofthe air in the atmosphere outside pushedthe piston back down. This is whyNewcomen’s engine is often called anatmospheric engine. Although it used ahuge amount of coal, it was very successful,especially at coal mines, where there was anendless supply of coal.

S T E A M P O W E R

4

Thomas Savery called his steam enginethe “miner’s friend”. It pumped water fromthe pipe at the bottom into the pipe at thetop via the two large cylinders. In Thomas Newcomen’s atmospheric steam

engine, movement of the piston wastransferred to the pump by a rocking beam.

James Watt’s steam engineincluded many improvements

over Thomas Newcomen’s. It hada separate cylinder where the

steam was condensed, allowing themain cylinder to remain hot all the

time. The piston was double-acting,which means it was moved both up and

down by steam. This was achieved by feedingsteam to one side of the piston then the other.An automatic governor controlled the flow of

steam to the cylinder, and so regulated its speed.Sun-and-planet gears converted the up-and-down

movement of the cylinder into a turning movement.

Beam

Rod topump

Boiler

Cylinder and piston

Beam

Condenser

Cylinderandpiston

Boiler

Belt drive tofactorymachinery

Governor

Sun-and-planetgears

Cylinder

Boiler



S P R E A D O F T H E R A I L WAY SExtensive railway networks were developedduring the second half of the nineteenthcentury, especially in the USA, Canada,Europe and Russia. Improvements in tracks,including the introduction of steel rails inthe 1860s, allowed for heavier locomotives,with increased power and speed. Carriagedesign also improved, and dining cars andsleeping cars were introduced by GeorgePullman in the USA. Railway networksrelied on other engineering improvements.Long-span steel bridges carried trains overwide rivers, and rock tunnels took themunder mountain ranges such as the Alps.From the 1850s the electric telegraphallowed communications between stationsso that signalling staff could keep track ofwhere the trains were.

By the 1930s powerful, streamlined steamlocomotives could haul passenger trains athigh speeds. But steam locomotives are veryinefficient. Only about five per cent of theenergy in the fuel gets to the wheels, andtime is needed to start the fire and get thewater boiling. In the 1950s and 1960s, steamlocomotives disappeared from most railwaysand were replaced by electric-powered anddiesel-powered locomotives. However,steam engines are still used in somecountries, such as India and China.Electric locomotives ran as early as 1879

in Germany. In 1890 they began pullingtrains on underground railways in London,and in 1903 on mainline railways inEurope. Diesel locomotives startedoperating in the USA in the 1930s.


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STEAM TRAINS

ATRAIN is a vehicle that runs on guiderails called a railway. Miners have used

simple wooden or iron railways calledwagon-ways for hundreds of years to moverock, coal and ore in trucks. The truckswere pulled and pushed by animals or theminers themselves. The first locomotivepowered by a steam engine (see page 4) wasbuilt in 1804 by English engineer RichardTrevithick, to haul trucks at an ironworks.The first passenger railway was the Stocktonand Darlington Railway in England, whichopened in 1828.

H O W A S T E A M L O C O M OT I V E W O R K SA steam locomotive is simply a steamengine on wheels. Fuel burns in thefirebox, creating hot gases that pass alongtubes inside the boiler. The heat from thetubes boils the water, creating steam. Asmore steam collects at the top of the boiler,its pressure builds up, and it escapes alongpipes to the cylinders, where, controlled byvalves, it pushes the pistons one way thenthe other (this is calleddouble action). The slidingmotion of the pistonsmoves the large drivingwheels round via a systemof linked connecting rods.


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Trevithick’s locomotive could pullup to 10 tonnes of iron.

The Rocket (below), built in England by George Stephenson,hauled trains on the Stockton and Darlington Railway.

A typical late-19th-century American locomotive(below), with a “cowcatcher” at the front.

As well as a driver, steam locomotivesneeded firemen to keep the fireboxsupplied with fuel (left). The fuel (coal ortimber) was carried in a tender behind theengine. The “Big Boy” locomotives(below) had a mechanicalstoker to supply the firewith fuel.

The “Big Boy”locomotives (far left),

built in the 1940s for theUnion Pacific Railroad in

the USA, were the largest (at40 m long), heaviest (at 600

tonnes) and most powerful steamlocomotives of all. But they were

not the fastest. That record belongs tothe streamlined British locomotive

Mallard (left), which set the world-recordspeed for a steam locomotive of 201 km/h

in 1938. The record still stands today.

Boiler

Cylinder andpiston

Firebox Connectingrods



The TGV runs at 300 kilometres perhour—half as fast again as most expresstrains—and holds the world-record speed of515 kilometres per hour. It runs on apurpose-built track, which has few bends,and uses computerized signalling.

Many high-speed expresses run on similartracks, including the Japanese shinkansen or“bullet” trains, which began operating in1965. Where purpose-built straight tracksare not possible, speeds can be increased byusing tilting trains. These tilt inwards as theygo round curves at high speed in the sameway as motorcyclists do on the road. Otherspecial trains include magnetic levitation(maglev) trains, which are both supportedabove their tracks and propelled bymagnets. Maglev trains can reach very highspeeds because there is no friction betweenthe train and the track.


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MODERN TRAINS

THERE ARE three types of modernlocomotive—electric, diesel-electric

and diesel. On an electric locomotive, thewheels are moved by electric motors(normally one for each pair of wheels). Theelectricity usually comes from overheadcables, but sometimes from an electrifiedthird rail. On a diesel-electric locomotive,the wheels are also driven by electricmotors, but the electricity comes from agenerator driven by a powerful dieselengine. On a diesel locomotive, a dieselengine drives the wheels via a mechanicaltransmission. Diesel locomotives arenormally used only for shunting and onlow-speed local trains. The fastest expresstrains, such as the French Train à GrandeVitesse (TGV), are normally electricallypowered, with a locomotive at each end.


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The longest scheduled train service is theTrans-Siberian Express, which runs on theTrans-Siberian Railway, from Moscow toVladivostok, a port city on the Sea ofJapan, a distance of 9297 km. Thecomplete journey takes almost eight days.Hauled by steam locomotives, the firsttrain ran on the route in 1914. The linewas electrified in the 1960s.

All the controls in a TGV’s cab,including the throttle andbrake, are computerized.The computer islinked by radio tothe signallingsystem.

The TGV can climb steeperslopes than other trains, allowing its

purpose-built track to go straight over hillsinstead of around them.

A pantograph collects electricity from theoverhead cable. Electronic circuits in thelocomotive control how the electricityflows to the motors.

Specialized trains are oftenused in city centres. InWuppertal, Germany (left),trains are suspended in theair from a monorail (singlerail) track. Underground trains(right) always use electricitybecause this does not createfumes. They have goodacceleration in order to movequickly between closely-spaced stations.

Motor control circuits

Pantograph

Carriages linked byfour-wheel bogies



The arrangement of sails on a boat iscalled its rig. A square rig consists of sailshung on a boom across the boat (as inancient Egyptian and Viking boats). Thissort of rig cannot make the best use ofwind blowing from side-on. The fore-and-aft rig, with a triangular sail hanging from aboom parallel with the boat’s sides, is moreeffective. The Chinese had developed asimilar rig on their early junks in about 500BC. It was developed in the Mediterraneanin the third century AD. In Europe in thefifteenth century, ships began to appear witha mixture of rigs—square-rigged sails onsome masts and fore-and-aft rigs on others.Through the centuries, sailing ships grewlarger, with more, taller masts and more sailson each one.The fastest sailing ships were the

“clippers”, which had a huge sail area totake advantage of light winds, andstreamlined hulls. They were used to carryimportant cargoes around the world, such asthe new crop of tea from China to Europe.


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SAILING SHIPS

PEOPLE made their first journeys acrosswater tens of thousands of years ago.Their first craft must have been logs, used asbuoyancy aids. Later, they tied logs togetherto make rafts, or hollowed them out tomake canoes. Where there were no bigtrees, they made boats from locally availablematerials, such as reeds or animal skins.Their boats allowed them to travel on riversand lakes, searching for better fishing, orvisiting hunting grounds.These early craft were propelled by

simple paddles, or poles pushed into theriver bed. The first sailing boats we knowabout were built in ancient Egypt in about3500 BC. Some were built from reedsbundled together, others from wood. Theyhad a single mast with a square sail, whichwas used in addition to oars when the windwas blowing in a favourable direction. Thecrew steered with long oars hanging overthe stern (rear).The ancient Greeks and Romans used

sturdy, seaworthy cargo boats and sleekfighting boats called galleys, both with asquare sail. In battle, the galleys werepropelled with oars and attacked enemyships with a ram on their bows.

About 1000 years ago, the Vikings, wholived in northern Europe, started to explorenew lands. Their ships were called knorrs(above). Each had a hull (body of vessel)made of overlapping or “clinkered” planks.


10

Chinese boats called junks (above) hadsails stiffened by thick bamboo poles, anda sternpost rudder for steering. Until the15th century they were the world’s biggestand best boats.

A highly decorated royal boat fromancient Egypt. The twosteering oars at the sternare supported bystrong poles.

By the 16th century, small,sturdy ships such as carracks(left) and galleons werecapable of long oceancrossings. With the aid ofcompasses to stop themaccidentally sailing in circles,sailors set out from Europeanports to explore the world andto try to find new sea routes tothe Spice Islands of Asia.

Among these explorers wasthe Portuguese navigatorFerdinand Magellan, who leftSpain in 1519 with five shipsto sail to Asia around thesouthern tip of newly-discovered America. Magellanhimself was killed in thePhilippines, two years into thevoyage. Only one of the ships,the Vittoria, under thecaptaincy of Sebastian delCano, finally got back toSpain, 1082 days after it left.It was the first ship tocircumnavigate the world.

Barques werehigh-capacity, multi-masted sailing ships thatcarried bulk cargoes such asgrain between Europe, South Americaand Australia. A small crew could operatethe barque’s simple rig. This particular barque,France II, built in 1911, was the biggest sailing shipever built. Its steel hull was 127 metres long.

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In the middle of the twentieth century,steam power began to give way to dieselpower. Diesel engines are smaller, cleaner,far more efficient, and need fewer crew tooperate them. Steam had almost completelydisappeared by the 1980s.

As air travel became convenient andcheap in the 1960s, passengers stoppedtravelling by sea and the age of the linercame to an end. But as cruise holidaysbecame popular in the 1980s, constructionof new, giant cruise liners began.


13

STEAMSHIPS

DURING the nineteenth century, largesailing ships almost completely

disappeared as steam power took over. Thefirst successful steam-powered vessel was ariver steamer built in the USA by RobertFulton in 1808. On early steamships thesteam engine turned paddle wheels thatmoved the ship along, but by the 1850smost ships were using propellers instead.Ocean-going steamships kept sails, too,because they could not carry enough coalor water for long-distance voyages, and theirengines were not very reliable.

One of themost important searoutes in thenineteenth century wasacross the Atlantic fromEurope to the USA. Millionsof people emigrated to the USAin ships. The first regulartransatlantic service, starting in 1837,was the wooden paddle-steamer GreatWestern, built by English engineer IsambardKingdom Brunel. Larger and larger shipsfollowed, including in 1858 Brunel’s GreatEastern, easily the biggest ship in the worldat the time, which could carry 4000passengers. Both passenger ships andmerchant ships continued to increase insize, especially with the introduction of steelhulls in the late nineteenth century.By the early twentieth century, huge

luxury liners were crossing the Atlantic, andsteam-powered merchant ships werecarrying most of the world’s cargo. Thefastest liners used the new steam turbineengine, in which the steam turned a fan-like turbine, which turned the propellers athigh speed.


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Fifteen hundred people lost their lives when the liner Titanic(above) sank after hitting an iceberg on its maiden voyage in1912. Following the disaster, new safety regulations for shipswere introduced.

The largest modern oiltankers (1), up to 450 mlong, and known as ultra-large crude carriers(ULCCs), dwarf a 16th-century Spanish galleon (2).

The French liner Normandie (3), launched in 1935,was nearly 300 m long, accommodated 1975passengers and needed 1345 crew. It was the firstof what were called the “1000-foot” liners.

HMS Dreadnought (4),launched in 1906, wasthe first battleshipdriven by steamturbines.

The Grand Princess (launched 1998) is one of the largest ofthe new generation of cruise liners designed especially for

holiday cruising. It is larger than even the biggest of thetransatlantic liners. On the ship’s 18 decks there are

cabins for 2600 passengers, including luxurysuites with balconies, several swimming

pools, bars, cafes and a theatre. Atthe stern is a night club

suspended over theocean.

The Queen Elizabeth(left) was one of thelargest and most luxuriousliners ever built. It was 314 mlong and weighed more than80,000 tonnes. It enteredtransatlantic service in 1946 aftercarrying troops during World War II, andretired in 1968.



Ships are controlled from a room high upnear the bow, called a bridge. From here,the crew navigate from place to place, usingengine and steering controls, and keepingtrack of their position using charts, satellitenavigation systems, lighthouses and buoys.Radar helps to avoid collisions at night orin fog, and sonar warns of shallow waterunder the ship.

SUBMARINES

ASUBMARINE IS a vessel that cantravel submerged under the water as

well as on the surface. A submarine needsan extremely strong hull to resist thepressure deep under water. Ballast tanks inthe hull are filled with water to make thesubmarine heavier so that it dives. The tanksare “blown” with air to empty them andmake the submarine surface again.While submerged, submarines are

propelled by battery-powered electricmotors that do not produce dangerousexhaust fumes. On the surface, dieselengines take over. They recharge thebatteries at the same time.


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MODERN SHIPS

MODERN SHIPS and boats can becategorized by the the jobs they do.

Merchant ships include cruise liners, ferries,cargo ships, and utility ships, such asdredgers and tugs. Military ships includewarships and support ships, calledauxiliaries. There are also numerousdifferent types of fishing boat and leisurecraft, from luxury yachts to sailing dinghies.Small cargoes are carried in standard-

sized metal boxes called containers oncontainer ships, which are loaded andunloaded at dedicated container terminals.Cargoes such as ores, coal and grain arecarried by bulk carriers. Oil and otherliquids are carried by tankers.The main part of a ship is its hull, the

part that sits in the water. It keeps the shipwatertight and forms a strong structure thatsupports the other parts of the ship and itscargo. Inside the hull are horizontal decksand vertical walls called bulkheads.

Different types of ship have their ownspecialized parts. For example, vehicleferries called roll-on roll-off (ro-ro) ferries,designed for a quick turnaround in port,have huge bow or stern doors, anduncluttered decks where the vehicles park.Container ships have their own on-deckcranes for moving containers about. Aircraftcarriers have a flat main deck that forms arunway where aircraft take off and land,with hangars underneath.


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The parts of a ship above the main deckare called its superstructure. Most ships havea diesel engine housed low in the hull,which drives a propeller under the stern viaa shaft. A rudder at the stern steers the ship.Large ships also have small electricallypowered propellers called thrusters formanoeuvring accurately in port.

The SeaCat is a high-speed vehicle ferry. Itis a catamaran, which means it has twohulls. Fast ferries like this are powered bygas turbine (jet) engines, giving them topspeeds in excess of 40 knots (70 km/h).

A giant Nimitz-class aircraft carrierdwarfs a 15th-century carrack.The nuclear-powered Nimitz- classcarriers are the world’s largest. They weighnearly 100,000 tonnes and have a flight deck 333 m long. They provide an operations base fornearly 100 attack aircraft.

The Spirit of Australia(right) holds the world waterspeed record of 514 km/h. It is ahydroplane—a boat that skims across thetop of the water.

Huge military submarinessuch as USS GeorgeWashington (above) lurkunder the water and attackenemy ships withtorpedoes. Nuclear-powered submarines canstay submerged for months.

A submersible such asAlvin (below) is a miniaturesubmarine. Submersiblesare mostly used forresearch in the oceandepths. Robot submersiblesalso carry out underwaterrepairs on oil rigs.

Electricallypoweredpropellers

Conningtower

Floodlights

Robot arm

Bridge

Aircraft beinglowered into hangar

Main deck

Santa Maria (Columbus’ ship)for scale comparison

The cycle iscompleted bythe ignitionstroke (left),which createsthe power, andthe exhauststroke (right).

Model-T Ford



T H E M OTO R A G E B E G I N SBenz and Daimler started selling cars in thelate 1890s. In 1891 the first car with a frontengine and rear-wheel drive appeared. Earlycars were tricky to operate, slow and hand-built, which made them expensive. In 1908motoring was opened up to ordinarypeople with the introduction in the USA ofthe Model-T Ford (above). This small carwas built on a production line, making itcheap to make and so cheap to buy.

Meanwhile, motor sports were becomingpopular, with cars taking part in races andrallies, and car builders competing to buildthe world’s fastest car. The land-speedrecord was first set in 1898, at 63 kilometresper hour.


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HISTORY OF CARS

PEOPLE had used carts pulled by horses,oxen or other large animals for morethan 5000 years before the first self-propelled vehicle was built. This was aclumsy steam-powered carriage designed topull artillery guns, built by FrenchmanNicolas Cugnot in 1769. Steam-poweredvehicles called traction engines took theplace of horses on farms from the 1850s.Cars driven by small steam engines werepopular in the USA in the 1890s.

I N T E R N A L C O M B U S T I O N E N G I N EThe job of the internal combustion engineis to convert the energy stored in its fuelinto movement. Inside the heavy engineblock are cylinders (normally four in a carengine). Pistons fit snugly inside thecylinders.When the engine is running, thepistons move up and down, turning acrankshaft (which turns the wheels) viaconnecting rods.Most internal combustion engines work

on a four-stroke cycle which is repeatedagain and again as the pistons move up anddown. On the first stroke, as the pistonmoves down, the inlet valve opens to allowa mixture of fuel and air to be sucked intothe cylinder (1). On the second stroke, asthe piston moves up, the air and fuel issqueezed into the top of the cylinder (2).Now a spark is created electrically by thespark plug, igniting the fuel, which forcesthe cylinder down (3). This is the thirdstroke. On the fourth stroke, the exhaustvalve opens to let waste gases be forced outas the piston moves up again (4).


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The age of the car really started with thedevelopment of the internal combustionengine. This development began in the1850s, but it was not until the 1880s thatsmall, lightweight, petrol-driven engineswere perfected, first of all by GottliebDaimler in Germany. The first petrol-drivencar was built by German engineer KarlBenz in 1885.

Nicolas Cugnot’ssteam carriage (above)could manage just 5 km/h.Karl Benz’s three-wheeledcar (right), which had asingle-cylinder petrolengine, reachedspeeds of 15 km/h.

The first twostrokes of thefour-strokecycle are theinlet stroke(left) and thecompressionstroke (right).

The cycle iscompleted bythe ignitionstroke (left),which createsthe power, andthe exhauststroke (right).

A street scene in Paris in1910. As the number ofcars on the streets grew,rules of the road had tobe introduced to preventthe cars crashing intohorses, pedestrians oreach other.

Early land-speed record-holders:(1) Jeantaud (1899, 93.7 km/h),(2) La Jamais Contente(1899, 105.9 km/h), (3)Serpollet (1902, 120.8 km/h) and (4) Mors (1902,124.1 km/h).Model-T Ford

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M OTO R C YC L E SEarly motorcycles were simply bicycles witha small steam engine attached, but theywere not practical machines. The firstmodern-style motorcycles, with a metalframe, two air-filled tyres and a lightweightpetrol engine, appeared around 1900.Modern motorcycles have similar features tocars, but have much greater acceleration.

A E R O DY N A M I C SThe way air flows around a moving body iscalled aerodynamics. As cars move along, theair flowing around them tries to slow themdown. The effect is called drag, and itprevents cars from continuing to speed up.The more streamlined the shape of a car,the lower the drag on it, and so the faster itstop speed. Racing cars (left) have specialaerodynamic features, such as wings thatcreate downforce. These force a car’s tyreson to the road, increasing grip and allowingthe car to corner more quickly withoutskidding sideways. ABICYCLE is a human-powered vehicle

with two wheels. The first bicycles,called “hobby horses”, were built about 200years ago. The rider moved along bypushing his or her feet against the ground.The first pedal-powered bicycle was madeby Scottish blacksmith KirkpatrickMacmillan in 1839. In 1861 in Paris, PierreMichaux built a bicycle on which thepedals turned the front wheels. It wasknown as the “boneshaker” and was the firstpopular bicycle. The modern bicycle, with adiamond-shaped frame and chain-drivenback wheel, was designed in 1885 byEnglishman John Starley.


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MODERN CARS

ALL MODERN CARS, from thesmallest urban car to the fastest racing

cars, have similar basic features. Wheels andsuspension allow the car to roll smoothlyalong the road. Tyres on the wheels grip theroad surface, allowing the car to accelerate,brake and corner without sliding.

All the car’s parts are supported by a rigidbody shell, which also protects the driverand passengers. Modern cars have manyadvanced features which make them moreefficient, and easier and safer to drive. Theseinclude computerized engine-managementsystems which control the flow of fuel tothe engine, navigation computers whichgive the driver directions, anti-lock brakeswhich prevent skidding, and air bags whichprotect the driver in an accident. Many ofthese features were originally developed toimprove the performance of racing cars, buthave become standard on road cars.


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Power from the engine is transferred tothe wheels by the transmission, includingthe gears. The fuel and exhaust systemssupply fuel to the engine and carry awaywaste gases. The electrical system supplieselectricity to the engine’s spark plugs, thecar’s lights and other electrical gadgets.

All road vehicles have similar features tocars, but the features are often specialized.For example, large haulage trucks (1) havemany wheels to spread their heavy load.Off-road vehicles, such as dumper trucks(2), have large wheels with chunky tyres forgood grip in the mud. Road-rollers (3) havesolid steel wheels.

BICYCLES

A stretch limousine (below) is a chauffeur-driven luxury car used for special occasionssuch as weddings. Inside are large,comfortable seats, where passengers can enjoydrinks from a bar and even watch television.

Aerodynamics are especially important in veryhigh-speed cars, such as Thrust SSC,

which holds the land-speed record of1227.723 km/h. It is the only

car to have gone fasterthan sound.

Slick racingtyres

Rear wing

Frontwing

Fuel tank inlet

Lightweightracing engine

Driver’s strong safety shellMacmillan’spedal bicycle

Michaux’s“boneshaker”

Starley’smodern bicycle

A racing car, with part of itsbody shell removed revealingthe position of its engine.



HELICOPTERS

THE IDEA of a flying machine lifted bya spinning rotor is centuries’ old. The

Italian painter and scientist Leonardo daVinci designed a simple helicopter in about1500, but he did not have an engine topower it. In 1907 Frenchman Paul Cornurose 30 centimetres into the air in a twin-rotor helicopter, but he had no controls.

The first successful helicopters, built inthe 1930s, had two rotors for lift and apropeller for propulsion. The single-rotorhelicopter was developed by Russian-bornAmerican engineer Igor Sikorsky. The mainrotor provided lift and propulsion, and thetail rotor prevented the fuselage (body ofthe aircraft) spinning in the oppositedirection to the main rotor. Helicopterswere soon being used by navies and forpassenger services. The development of thejet engine in the 1950s made larger, fasterhelicopters possible.


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STORY OF FLIGHT I

FOR THOUSANDS of years, peoplemust have watched birds flying aroundthem and dreamed of copying them. Manyactually tried it. These “birdmen” strappedon wings and leapt from towers, trying toflap their arms. Most were killed.The first manned flight took place in

Paris in 1783, in a hot-air balloon built bythe French brothers Joseph and EtienneMontgolfier. Aviators also began to developairships—balloons with a streamlined shape,pushed through the air by an engine.Balloons and airships are described aslighter-than-air aircraft because they floatupwards in the heavier air around them.The first heavier-than-air aircraft were

gliders, built and flown in the nineteenthcentury by pioneers such as the GermanOtto Lilienthal. In the USA, two brothers,Orville and Wilbur Wright, wereexperimenting with kites and gliders. Theymade thousands of test flights in theirgliders, gradually perfecting their controls.In 1903 they finally built an aeroplane,called Flyer 1, with a petrol engine. It madethe first-ever powered, controlled aeroplaneflight, which lasted just 12 seconds (below).

In the decade after the Wright brothers’historic flight, aviation became a popularsport. Race meetings and airshows wereheld, and pilots made historic long-distanceflights. Aircraft technology steadilyimproved. Aviators began to understandhow to build stronger aircraft structureswithout increasing weight, wings whichgave better lift and created less drag, andcontrols that made life easier for the pilot.The standard aircraft shape, with a tailsection supporting a fin and tailplane, beganto become popular. More efficient andpowerful engines and propellers gave aircraftgreater speed, endurance and reliability. By1913 the speed record was 203 kilometresper hour, and the distance record 1021kilometres.

Armies began ordering aircraft frommanufacturers such as Glenn Curtiss in theUSA and Louis Blériot in France. DuringWorld War I, aircraft became specialized forcertain jobs, such as fast, manoeuvrablefighters and large, long-distance bombers.Large, flat decks were added to somebattleships where aircraft could take off toattack enemy ships with torpedoes.


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The Montgolfiers’ balloon(above) carried the first pilotand passenger on a 25-minute flight. The air in theballoon was heated by strawburning on the ground. In1852 Frenchman HenryGiffard took off in his steam-powered airship (above right).The envelope was filled withlighter-than-air hydrogen gasrather than hot air. Airshipssuch as the 245-metre-longGraf Zeppelin II (right) had asteel skeleton covered infabric. The gas was containedin huge bags inside.

The Blériot XI, inwhich Louis Blériotcrossed the EnglishChannel in 1909.

The Sikorsky Le Grand(above), the first four-engined aeroplane, andthe Spad S.XIII WorldWar I fighter (right).

The Focke-AchgelisFa-61 (right) of1936, the firstsuccessfulhelicopter, and theSikorsky VS-300,the first single-rotorhelicopter (below).

Westland Sea King



J E T A I R C R A F TThe jet engine was developed in the late1930s, both by Hans von Ohain inGermany and Frank Whittle in Britain. Thefirst jet aircraft flew in 1939. Jet enginespowered new jet fighters with swept-backwings, such as the MiG-15 and later theMirage, and a new generation of airliners.Rocket-powered aircraft such as the X-15were built for research into high-speedflight. The X-15 still holds the world speedrecord of 7274 kilometres per hour.

The latest airliners, fighters such as theEurofighter, and bombers such as theNorthrop B-2, have sophisticated controlsystems, such as “fly-by-wire”. In an aircraftwith a fly-by-wire system, the pilot controlswhere the aircraft goes, but a computeractually does the flying. In an airliner, fly-by-wire can prevent the pilot makingmistakes such as stalling. In a fighter, itallows the pilot to make manoeuvres thatwould be impossible if he or she were usinga standard mechanical control system.


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STORY OF FLIGHT II

THE FIRST PASSENGER airlines wereformed in 1919, just after the end of

World War I. Their airliners were convertedwartime bombers, such as the FarmanGoliath, which had seats for 11 passengers.Flying in them was cold and bumpy, andthere was noise and vibration from thepiston engines. In the 1920s and 1930saviation engineers began building in metalinstead of wood, creating aircraft withstrong tubular fuselages and monoplanewings, such as the Martin B-10 bomber.

The first modern-style airliners, such asthe Douglas DC-3, appeared in the mid-1930s. During World War II pilots neededheavy bombers, such as the B-24 Liberator,and fast fighters, such as the Ilyushin Il-2.


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The introduction of long-range,economical, jet-powered airliners, such asthe De Havilland Comet and the Boeing707, the first “big jet”, led to a huge boomin airline travel. The first (and so far theonly) supersonic airliner, the Concorde, wasintroduced in 1969, and the first wide-bodied airliner, the Boeing 747, came intooperation in 1970 (see page 24).

Two of the strangestaircraft are theRutan Voyager(right), which madethe first non-stopround-the-worldflight in 1986, andthe Northrop B-2“stealth” bomber(below).

Farman Goliath

Martin B-10

Douglas DC-3 Dakota

Ilyushin Il-2

North American X-15

Dassault Breguet Mirage III

Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15

Consolidated B-24 Liberator Boeing 707

De Havilland Comet

Lockheed C-130

Eurofighter Typhoon

BAC/Aérospatiale Concorde

In 1926 a prize of $25,000 wasoffered to the first pilot whocould fly non-stop from NewYork to Paris. American airmailpilot Charles Lindbergh took upthe challenge. He had a new,all-metal monoplane, the Spiritof St. Louis, built especially forthe journey, and decided to flyon his own. Lindbergh took offfrom New York on 19th May1927. Navigating virtually byguesswork, flying low to avoidfog and fighting sleep, Lindberghreached Paris 33 hours and 30minutes later, to achieve the firstsolo Atlantic crossing.

ALL AIRCRAFT TO SCALE

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C O N T R O L L I N G L I F TThe amount of lift from a wing increaseswith the aeroplane’s speed and also with theangle of attack, the angle at which the winghits the air. At lower speeds, the pilotmaintains lift by raising the nose of theplane to increase the angle of attack. But ifthe angle becomes too great, air cannotflow smoothly over the top of the wing andlift is lost. This is called a stall.

At low speed during take-off andlanding, flaps (1) extend from the

trailing (rear) edge of the wing. On the 747,each set of flaps has three sections. There arealso small flaps on the leading edge of thewing (2). Flaps increase the size of thewing, and so create extra lift. For take-off(left), flaps are partly extended. For landing(below) they are fully extended. Spoilers (3)flip up from the upper surface of the wing.They break the flow of air over the wing,reducing lift.


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BOEING 747

ALL MODERN aeroplanes have similarfeatures, although those of airliners

such as the Boeing 747 are larger and morecomplex than those of smaller aeroplanes.The fuselage is a strong tube inside whichthe passengers, crew and their baggagetravel. Wings support the aeroplane in theair by creating a force called lift. Engines(see page 27) provide a forward force calledthrust, which pushes the aeroplane forwardsagainst the resistance of the air (which iscalled drag). The fin and tailplane keep theplane flying straight and level. Hingedsections called control surfaces (the rudder,elevators, and ailerons) steer the aircraftthrough the air.

The Boeing 747-400, shown here, is oneof the world’s largest airliners, also known asthe “Jumbo Jet”. It can carry up to 569passengers (but normally carries 420 in first,business and economy cabins), and cruises atup to 985 kilometres per hour, at analtitude of 10 kilometres. Its maximumrange is 14,100 kilometres—more than athird of the way round the world.


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The 747 is 70.7 m long. Its wingspan is 64.3 m.Take-off weight is 400 tonnes, including 150tonnes of fuel, stored in tanks in the wings.

As an aeroplane moves forwards through theair (left), air hitting the leading (front) edge ofthe wing separates above and below the wing.Because of the curved shape of a wing, calledan aerofoil, the air that flows over it is fasterthan that flowing underneath. This createshigher air pressure under the wing than aboveit. The difference in pressure pushes the wingupwards with a force called lift.

Fin

Rudder

SpoilerFlap

Ailerons Elevator

TailplaneAuxiliary powerunit

Rear pressurebulkhead

Lavatory

Crew rest area

Baggage containers

Winglet Air supply ductLeading-edge flaps

Toilet wastecontainers

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Some of the inflowing air is ducted aroundthe combustion chamber to join theexhaust gas. Besides being much morepowerful than other types, the engine iscooler and quieter, and more economical inits use of fuel. Turbofan engines are equipped with

thrust reversers. When in use, the jet of hotexhaust gases is deflected forwards instead ofbackwards, producing a force which rapidlyslows down the plane landing on therunway.Besides driving the plane through the air,

the engines supply the power needed forthe electricity used on board. Air is alsodiverted from the engine compressor topressurize the cabin.

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A I R T R A N S P O R T A I R T R A N S P O R T

J E T E N G I N E SThere are four engines on a Boeing 747,two on each wing, contained within enginecowlings (casings) attached to the wingundersides. The front entrance to theengine, known as the intake, is so large aperson could stand in it.The 747 engine is a type of jet engine

called a turbofan. All jets work in the sameway: hot, compressed air is expelled fromthe back of the engine, driving it forwards(see illustration above). In a turbofan, air issucked into the engine by a whirling fan (6)in front of the compressor. It is driven byanother turbine at the rear of the engine.

After take-off, the landing gear retractsin a forward direction into the nose ofthe fuselage. Hinged doors closebehind them.

Constantly transmittingand receiving back radiosignals, the radarenables the crew towatch for other aircraftand approaching storms.

In a jet engine (right), air is drawnin (1), compressed by spinningblades (2), mixed with kerosenefuel and burned in a combustionchamber (3). The hot exhaust gasescapes at speed through the rearof the engine, turning a turbine (4)(which drives the compressor) asit spurts past. The backward-flowing air (5) provides a forwardthrust, like the kick of a rifle aftera bullet is fired.

Communications aerial

Upper deck

Pilots’ rest bunks

Flight deck

Landing gear(wheels)

Baggage hold

Radome(containingradar)

INSIDE AN AIRLINER

SEATED AT THE controls on the flightdeck are the pilot and co-pilot. Formuch of the journey, the controls areswitched to an automatic control system, orautopilot. This uses computers to senseoutside conditions, such as wind speed, andto manipulate the controls accordingly totravel along a pre-set route. All the crewhave to do is to keep an eye on themonitors to check that all systems arefunctioning correctly.For safety reasons, a Boeing 747 is

equipped with a voice recorder and a flightrecorder, sometimes known as the “blackbox” (although it is actually a bright orangecolour). These instruments record everymanoeuvre the aircraft makes. In the eventof an incident or a crash, the recordings canbe played back and provide evidence forwhat went wrong.Six display screens—three for each

pilot—give all the information needed tofly the plane. The Primary Flight Display (1)shows the aeroplane’s attitude—the angle at

which it is flying in relation to the Earth. Italso indicates the plane’s course, its speedand the height of the plane above the landor sea. The Navigation Display (2) plots theplane’s position on a map of the route. TheEngine Indication and Crew AlertingSystem (EICAS) (3) gives informationabout the operation of the aeroplane’ssystems and engines.

Air pressure, which keeps oxygen supplied to ourlungs, is much lower at cruising altitudes (about10,000 metres). Air is pumped into the pressurizedpassenger cabin to keep it at comfortable levels.

A Boeing 747’s flight deck controls

Air supply ducts

Passenger cabin

Enginecowling

Landing gear(wheels)

Engine

Watertank

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T H E M O O N M I S S I O N SAfter the former Soviet Union launchedthe first man into orbit in 1961, AmericanPresident John F. Kennedy announced thatthe USA would land a man on the Moonbefore the end of the 1960s. A newspacecraft specially designed for the mission,called Apollo, was built. It consisted of aCommand Module, from where theastronauts controlled the craft, a ServiceModule, which contained a rocket engineand life-support systems, and a LunarModule, the only section that was todescend to the Moon’s surface. A newlaunch vehicle, the giant Saturn V, was alsobuilt. During a series of missions in Earthand Moon orbit throughout the 1960s,Apollo was thoroughly tested and astronautstrained for the Moon landing.

The Lunar Module of Apollo 11, calledEagle, landed on the Moon on 20th July1969. A few hours after touchdown,watched by millions on live television, NeilArmstrong clambered down a ladder andstepped on to the surface to become thefirst human on the Moon. Edwin “Buzz”Aldrin followed him. The third astronaut onthe mission, Michael Collins, orbited abovein the Command Module. Armstrong andAldrin gathered samples of Moon rock andsoil (below) and planted a flag before liftingoff in the upper section of the LunarModule to dock with the CommandModule. There they rejoined Collins,jettisoned the Lunar Module and began thereturn trip to Earth. Five more ApolloMoon missions followed, the last in 1972.

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SPACE TRAVEL I

ALTHOUGH SPACE starts just 100kilometres above the Earth’s surface, it

is very difficult to get there. Aeroplanescannot reach space because the air getsthinner and thinner with altitude. Theirwings begin to lose lift and their jet enginesstop working through lack of oxygen. Sospacecraft need rocket engines which workin the vacuum of space.To travel in space, aspacecraft must reach a speed of 28,500kilometres per hour, the minimum speedrequired to escape the pull of the Earth’sgravity. Once in space, the craft’s enginescan be turned off. It maintains its speedbecause there is no air to slow it down.In a rocket engine, two different fuels

mix and react together inside a combustionchamber, creating hot gases that rush out ofa nozzle at great speed. The gases rushing inone direction push the engine and thespacecraft in the opposite direction. Thefirst experimental rocket was launched in1926 by the American inventor RobertGoddard, but it was not until the 1950s thata rocket powerful enough to reach spacewas developed. Spacecraft are normallycarried into space by rocket-poweredlaunch vehicles, which are huge comparedto the spacecraft. For example, the 140-tonne Apollo spacecraft needed a 3000-tonne Saturn V rocket to launch it. Most ofthe weight was fuel.

The enormous Saturn V, builtto launch the Apollo series ofspacecraft (see opposite),consisted of three rocketstages. In a multi-stagerocket, the engines of eachstage fire until their fuel runsout. Then the stage isjettisoned (cast off) and theengines of the next stage fire.The rocket gets lighter eachtime a stage is lost, allowingit to accelerate more easily.This is more efficient thanone rocket.

The first stage (1) of aSaturn V had five engines (2)fuelled by kerosene and liquidoxygen stored in huge tanks(3). It created as much thrustas 50 jumbo jets. The secondstage (4) also had fiveengines, fuelled by liquidhydrogen and oxygen. Thethird stage (5) had oneengine, also fuelled by liquidhydrogen and oxygen.

On top of the 111-metrerocket were the Lunar Module(6), Service Module (7) andCommand Module (8) of theApollo spacecraft, and anescape rocket (9), that pulledthe Command Module clear ofthe rocket in case of anemergency during launch.


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Robert Goddard’s first rocket(below, left) reached analtitude of just 12.5 metres.The German V2 long-rangerocket (centre) was built as aweapon from 1942. TheSoviet Vostok launcher (right)launched the first-eversatellite, Sputnik 1 (left).

1 Lift-off2 Second stage fires3 Modules are re-arranged4 Lunar Module starts descent from Moon orbit5 Lunar Module touches down6 Upper section of Lunar Module lifts off7 Lunar Module jettisoned8 Engines fired to leave Moon orbit9 Service Module jettisoned

10 Splash down in ocean



The whole shuttle, except for the largefuel tank, which is destroyed during launch,can be re-used. The first shuttle mission wasflown by the shuttle Columbia in 1981.Since then, there have been dozens ofmissions to launch or repair satellites,service space stations, and carry outscientific and military research.

F U T U R E S PA C E T R AV E LAt the beginning of the twenty-firstcentury, travelling even to Earth’s closestneighbour planet Mars, let alone planets inother solar systems, is still impractical. A tripto Mars and back would take more than ayear. The equipment, supplies and fuel forsuch a trip would require a vast rocket tolaunch a spacecraft from Earth. A return tripto the outer planets would take a lifetimewithout some new form of propulsion withmuch greater power than a rocket engine.For the time being, space probes remain thebest way of exploring distant worlds.Work is under way on a new

international space station, which will be abase for scientific research. It is a modularstructure, being built in space module-by-module, with sections being delivered intoorbit by the shuttle and unmanned launchvehicles. In the future, space stations such asthis, or permanent bases on the Moon,could be a starting point for space journeys.Spacecraft would be built and launchedfrom there rather than from Earth.


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SPACE TRAVEL II

SINCE the Apollo Moon missions werecompleted in 1972, no astronauts havebeen further than Earth orbit, but manyunmanned spacecraft, called space probes,have visited the other planets in our SolarSystem. Probes carry cameras and sensingequipment that send back photographs andother data. Some probes actually land onthe planets’ surfaces. Hundreds of satellitesfor communications, weather forecasting,scientific research and astronomy, have alsobeen launched into Earth orbit.The first permanent space station,

Salyut 1, was launched in 1971. Inside spacestations, astronauts carry out experiments tosee how people react to staying in space forlong periods, and how plants and animalscope with very low gravity. Probes,satellites, space stations and their crews arelifted into space by launch vehicles such asthe European Ariane space rocket, or by theAmerican space shuttle.

The space shuttle was designed as a re-usable spacecraft because of the huge cost ofrockets and craft such as the Saturn V andApollo, all the parts of which werecompletely destroyed during a mission. Theshuttle flies into space like a rocket andglides back to Earth like an aeroplane.


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At lift-off (1), the shuttle ismade up of the wingedorbiter, where the astronautstravel, a huge fuel tank,which supplies fuel to theorbiter’s three main rocketengines, and two boosterrockets attached to the fueltank. The fuel tank containsliquid oxygen andhydrogen. Thebooster rocketsuse solid fuel.They work likehugefireworks, andcannot beswitched off afterignition. The orbiteralso has two smallerengines called theorbital manoeuvringsystem (OMS), andclusters of small gas-powered thrusters atthe nose and tail, usedfor small manoeuvresin orbit.

Soon after lift-off (2), the shuttleturns on to its back. The boosterrockets last for two minutes, thenseparate from the fuel tank (3)and parachute back to Earth forre-use. The fuel in the externaltank runs out after nine minutes,after which the orbiter jettisons it(4) and it falls back into theatmosphere, where it burns upbecause of the intense heatcreated. The orbiter is now on itsown. The OMS engines are firedfor a short time to accelerate theorbiter into its correct orbit.

During “extra-vehicularactivity” outside theirspacecraft (right),astronauts are protectedfrom the cold, high-speedmeteorites and radiationfrom the Sun by acomplex spacesuit.Astronauts sometimesuse a manned-manoeuvring unit (MMU),powered by tiny gas jets,which allows them tomanoeuvre freely inspace.

Less than fifteen minutes afterlaunch, the shuttle is in orbitat an altitude of about 200 km. Now the astronautscan carry out their mission—in this case, launching asatellite from the “payloadbay” (in the upper part of theorbiter’s fuselage) using theorbiter’s remotely-controlledrobot arm (5). With themission complete, the OMSengines slow down the orbiterso that it begins to fall backto Earth (6).

During re-entry into theatmosphere, heat-resistant ceramic tilesprotect the orbiter fromthe intense heat. Itgradually slows as itdescends, and finallyglides back on to arunway like anaeroplane (7).

New types of reusable vehicles, calledspaceplanes, which will carry supplies tospace stations, are under development.They will take off and gain altitude likeaeroplanes, with their engines working likejet engines, and then make the jump toorbit with their engines working like rocketengines. Spaceplanes could also makepassenger flights, cutting the journey timebetween Europe and Australia to under twohours. The international space station willhave a spaceplane “lifeboat” for the crew.

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(AB)UK TextJOB NO:E7-05129 TITLE:TECHNOLOGY & TRANSPORT

150# DTP:39 PAGE:32

Aaerodynamics 19aerofoil 24aeroplanes 20-27aircraft 20-27aircraft carriers 14, 21airships 20-21Aldrin, Edwin 29Alvin submersible 15Apollo 11 spacecraft 29Apollo space mission

28-29, 30Armstrong, Neil 29astronauts 28, 30autopilot 26

Bballast tanks 15balloons, hot-air 20barques 11battleship 13Benz, Karl 16-17bicycles 19“Big Boy” steam

locomotive 7black box see flight

recorder boats 10-11ancient Egyptian 10-11

Boeing 707 airliner 23Boeing 747 airliner

(Jumbo Jet) 23, 24-27bomber aircraft 21, 22-23booster rockets 30bridges 7

Ccargo ships 10-11, 12, 14carracks 11cars 16-19Columbia space shuttle 31 combustion chamber 27,

28communications 7compass, magnetic 11compressor 27computers 8, 23, 26Concorde airliner 23container ships 14cruise liners 13, 14cylinders 4-5, 6, 16

D EDaimler, Gottlieb 16-17De Havilland Comet 23diesel engines 13, 14, 15electric motors 8, 15electricity 8-9, 18, 27Engine Indicating and

Crew Alerting System (EICAS) 26

Eurofighter 23

merchant ships 12, 14MiG-15 fighter 23Model-T Ford 17monoplanes 22monorail trains 9Moon landing 29motor sports 17motorcycles 19

N ONavigation Display (ND)

26Nimitz-class aircraft

carrier 14Northrop B-2 “stealth”

bomber 23nuclear power 14, 15ocean liners 10-13oil tankers 12-13orbital manoeuvring

system (OMS) 30orbiter (of space shuttle)

30

Ppaddle wheels 12paddle-steamers 12passenger aircraft 22, 31passenger ships 12-13petrol engine 16, 19, 20pistons 4-5, 6, 16power stations 5pressure, air 4-5, 6, 24, 26Primary Flight Display

(PFD) 26propellers 12, 14, 15, 21pump, steam 4

Q RQueen Elizabeth 13racing cars 17, 18-19radars 15, 27rail transport 6-9railways 6-9rear-wheel drive 17rig 11robots 15, 31rocket engines 23, 28, 30,

31rocket stages 28Rocket steam locomotive

6 roll-on roll off (ro-ro)

ferries 14rotors 21rudder 10, 14, 24

Ssailing ships 10-11Salyut 1 space station 30satellites 15, 28, 30-31Saturn V 28-29, 30SeaCat catamaran 14Service Module 28-29shinkansen 9ships 10-15Sikorsky Le Grand

F GFarman Goliath aircraft

22ferries 14fighter aircraft 21, 22-23flaps (of aircraft’s wings)

25-25flight, history of 20-23flight deck 26-27flight recorder (black

box) 26fly-by-wire aircraft 23Flyer 1 20fore-and-aft rig 11four-stroke cycle 16friction 9fuselage 21, 22, 24galleons 11galleys 10gears 5generator 8George Washington, USS

15gliders 20Graf Zeppelin II airship 20

H Ihelicopters 21hull (of a ship) 10-11, 12,

14, 15hydroplane 15industrial machinery 5internal combustion

engine 16

J Kjet aircraft 23 jet engines 21, 23, 24,

26-27, 28, 31Jumbo Jet see Boeing 747junks, Chinese 10-11knorrs, Viking 10

Lland-speed record 17, 19landing gear 27launch vehicles 28, 30Leonardo da Vinci 21lift (force) 24-25limousine, stretch 18Lindbergh, Charles 22Lockheed C-130 aircraft

23locomotives, diesel 7, 8diesel-electric 8electric 7, 8steam 6-7, 8

Lunar Module 28-29

MMagellan, Ferdinand 11magnetic levitation trains

9magnets 9Mallard steam locomotive

7Martin B-10 bomber 22

aeroplane 21 sonar 15space probes 30space shuttle 30-31space station 30-31space travel 28-31future 31

spacecraft 28-31spaceplanes 31spark plugs 16, 17Spirit of Australia 15Spirit of St. Louis 22spoilers 24-25Sputnik 1 28square-rigged sails 11stalling 23, 25Starley, John 19steam engines 4-5,

6-7, 12, 16, 19steam trains 6-7steam-powered carriage

16steamships 12-13Stockton and Darlington

Railway 6submarines 15submersibles 15supersonic flight 23suspension 18

Ttailplane 21, 24telegraph 7thrust 24, 27Titanic 12Train à Grande Vitesse

(TGV) 8-9trains 6-9Trans-Siberian Railway 8transatlantic flight, first

solo 22transatlantic passenger

services 12-13trucks 19tugs 14turbines 5, 12-13, 27turbofan jet engine 27

U V W Xultra-large crude carriers(ULCCs) 12

underground trains 7, 9Union Pacific Railroad 7V2 rocket 28vacuum 4, 28Vostok rocket launcher28

Watt, James 5Westland Sea Kinghelicopter 21

Whittle, Frank 23wings (of aircraft) 24-25Wright, Wilbur andOrville 20

X-15 rocket 23

I N D E X

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INDEXPage numbers in boldrefer to main entries.

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