childhood: the wonder years. motor development refers to progression of muscular coordination...
TRANSCRIPT
CHILDHOOD: THE WONDER YEARS
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Refers to progression of muscular coordination required for physical activity
Grasping, reaching, crawling, walking, etc…
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
1: Cephalocaudal trend: head-to-foot direction of motor development
Children tend to gain control of their upper body before the lower
2: Proximodistal trend: center-outward direction of motor development
MATURATION
Early motor dev. depends partially on physical growth; uneven in infancy
Early motor dev. attributed to Maturation: development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one’s genetic blueprint
DEVELOPMENTAL NORMS
DEF: the median age at which individuals display various behaviors and abilities
Useful as benchmarks in the life span
CULTURAL VARIATIONS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE
Cross-cultural research shows a relationship btwn experience and maturation
As age increases, maturation becomes less influential and experience is more critical
EASY AND DIFFICULT BABIES
Temperament: characteristic mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity
Alexander Thomas and Stella Chase studies
Longitudinal study: observe one group repeatedly over a period of time
Cross-sectional study: compare groups of differing age at a single pt. in time
THOMAS AND CHASE FINDINGS
Temperament is established btwn 2 or 3 months old
3 basic styles:1) Easy children: 40%; happy, regular sleep
and eating, adaptable, not easily upset2) Slow-to-warm-up: 15%; less cheery, less
regular sleep and eating, slower adaptation to change
3) Difficult children: 10%; glum, erratic sleep and eating, irritable, resistant to change
--remaining 35% were a mix
OTHER RESEARCH
Jerome Kagan15-20% of infants:
inhibited temperament: shy, timid, wary of unfamiliar
25-30% of infants: uninhibited temperament: not shy, approach unfamiliar
EARLY EMOTIONAL AND PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT
ATTACHMENT
DEF: close, emotional bonds of affection that develop btwn infants and their caregivers
Usually to the motherNot instantaneousSeparation anxiety:
emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment
PATTERNS OF ATTACHMENT
Secure attachment: infant is comfortable when mother present, visibly upset when she leaves, calmed when she returns
Anxious-ambivalent: anxious when mother present, protest when she leaves, not calmed when she returns
Avoidant attachment: seek little contact w/mother, not distressed when she leaves
EFFECTS OF SECURE ATTACHMENT
Children tend to become competent toddlers w/high self-esteem
Preschool years: leaders, self-reliant, better peer relations
Age 11: better social skills, more close friends
More advanced cognitive development
All correlational data
BONDING AT BIRTH
Some believe that skin-to-skin contact btwn newborn and mother is important
Can create a more effective attachment
DAY CARE
Do infant-mother separations effect attachment?
2/3 of children under 5 are in day care
Research by Belsky shows 20+ hrs per week increases development of insecure attachment
CULTURE AND ATTACHMENT
Separation anxiety emerges c. 6-8 months
Peaks about 14-18 months
Attachment is culturally universal
Differences occur due to child-rearing practices
EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVES ON ATTACHMENT
Attachments may depend on the character of the environments
Secure environments create sensitive parents, which leads to secure attachment
Harsh environments create unresponsive parents; leads to insecure attachment
BECOMING UNIQUE: PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Freud came up w/1st theory of personality development
Erik Erikson revised the stage theory of Freud
Stage: developmental period during which characteristic patterns of behavior are exhibited and certain capacities become established
ERIKSON’S STAGE THEORY
8 stagesEach has a
psychosocial crisis involving transitions
Personality is shaped by how we deal with these crises
STAGE 1
Trust vs. MistrustIn the 1st year of lifeBabies rely on others
for careIf biological needs are
seen to, secure attachments form
STAGE 2
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
2nd and 3rd years of life
Toilet training and other ways of regulating behavior
Child must begin to take some responsibility
Parent-child conflicts may create shame and self-doubt
STAGE 3
Initiative vs. GuiltAges 3-6Children take
initiatives that conflict with rules
Overcontrolling parents may instill feelings of guilt, damaging self-esteem
Be supportive while maintaining control
STAGE 4
Industry vs. Inferiority
Ages 6-pubertyLearning to function
socially beyond the family
Effective functioning leads to higher sense of competence
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: TRANSITIONS IN CHILDREN’S PATTERNS OF THINKING, INCLUDING REASONING, REMEMBERING,
AND PROBLEM SOLVING
GROWTH OF THOUGHT: COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
OVERVIEW OF PIAGET’S STAGE THEORY
Jean PiagetWanted to study how
children use intelligence
Believed the way children think is altered by interaction w/environment and maturation
4 major stages…
STAGE 1
Sensorimotor PeriodFrom birth to age 2Development of
coordination of sensory input
Transition from innate reflexes to use of mental symbols
Object Permanence: recognition that objects continue to exist even when no longer visible
STAGE 2
Preoperational PeriodAge 2-7Principles:1: Conservation: awareness that physical amts remain constant in spite of changes in shape and appearance2: Centration: tendency to focus on one feature of a problem, ignoring others
STAGE 2 CONTINUED
3: Irreversibility: inability to envision reversing an action4: Egocentrism: limited ability to share another person’s point of view---notable feature of egocentrism: animism: belief that all things are living
STAGE 3
Concrete Operational Period
Development of mental operations
Reversibility and decentration occur
Leads to decline in egocentrism and mastery of conservation
Problem solving skills enhance
STAGE 4
Formal Operational Period
C. 11 yrs oldAbstract operationsProblem solving
becomes systematic, logical, and reflective
ARE COGNITIVE ABILITIES INNATE?
Habituation: gradual reduction in strength of a response when a stimulus is presented repeatedly
Dishabituation: occurs if a new stimulus elicits an increase in the strength of an habituated response
CHILDREN’S UNDERSTANDING OF THE MIND
Age 2: distinguish btwn desires and emotions
Age 3: realize other’s thoughts and beliefs
Age 4: begin to understand how thoughts and desires effect behavior
PROGRESS IN INFORMATION PROCESSING
Info. processing theory focuses on how people receive, encode, store, organize, retrieve, and use information
Has shown developmental changes in attention and memory
ATTENTION
Attention span lengthens as age increases
More conscious control is acquired
Gradually able to filter out irrelevant data
MEMORY
Infantile Amnesia: inability to remember experiences from early years
Memories usually start around 3 or 4 yrs oldDevelopment of language skills improves memoriesStrategies for enhancement of information storage
and retrieval:Rehearsal: repetition; verbal or thinking (age 5)Organization: grouping based on similarities(age 9)Elaboration: building additional associations(age
11)
DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL REASONING
KOHLBERG’S STAGE THEORY
Lawrence KohlbergTheory focus: moral
reasoningThree levels:
Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional
Each as 2 sublevels (6 stages in all)
KOHLBERG’S LEVELS
Preconventional: thinking in terms of external authority---based on punishment or reward
Conventional: internalize rules to be virtuous and win approval---rules are absolute
Postconventional: working out personal code of ethics; moral thinking is flexible