Childhood &

Risk

Since the 1980’s Ulrich Beck has argued that postmodern society has become increasingly preoccupied with RISK. In his book ‘The Risk Society’ (1992), Beck outlines the features of this obsession with risk: Risks to health; risks to safety; risks to the environment.Hence, we seek to establish circumstances of ZERO risk, and with it predictabilities of OUTCOMES.

Frank Furedi adds to this risk discourse proposing that society is now engulfed in a ‘Culture of Fear’ (1997), and this fear serves hegemonic and control purposes.

“What are we going to ‘do’ with all this Uncertainty?”

Rationalize it?

One response to the problem (of risk) has been the development of a range of risk-assessment tools, some of which aim to incorporate a predictive element (Browne and Saqui, 2002).But, given that human beings are poor at gauging probabilities, Munro (2007) suggeststhat we should not expect child protection

workers to be ‘fortune tellers’.(Daniel, 2010:234)

“When we talk about a 'risk factor', we mean something that makes an experience likely to damage the individual, or something which is statistically predictive of a poor outcome”. (Meadows :2009:232)

(Meadows 2009:278)

A classic study of London boys by West (1982) identified five 'key'

risk factors:

Coming from a low-income family

Coming from a large-sized family

Having parents whom social workers considered to be inadequate parents;

Having a parent with a criminal record.

Having belowaverage intelligence.

Subsequent research has

identified other features of

children’s lives deemed to

constitute ‘Risk Factors’

E.g.. Beinart et al 2002

• Intervention into the privacy of family life is legitimated by legislation that is based upon

the premise that children are vulnerable,

• That we cannot take it for granted that parents will always offer the appropriate protection

• That they may, on occasion, actively harm their children.

(Daniel 2010:231)

Child FactorsBrowne & Herbert 1997

Source: RCPCH.org 2007

Fail to meetParental expectations

Born at ‘wrong time’ i.e. in middle of drug habit

Due to parentalBreak up

Child is a result of forced or commercial sex

Child is considered to be ‘wrong gender’

Child is premature or illness affects attachment/bonding

Child has physical or learning disabilities

Child has physical or learning disabilities Child has behavioural

problems or ‘difficult’ temperament

Parental Factors

associated with risk

Browne & Herbert, 1997

Source: RCPCH.org 2007

Environmental factors

Gelles 1997

Source: RCPCH.org 2007

Violence towards pets

Social Isolation

Poverty

The current ‘child protection’ system in the UK,, developed through the 1980s and 1990s. It shifted from one shaped by a

‘sociomedical’discourse in which abuse was ‘diagnosed’ and therapeutic support was offered, towards a

‘socio-legal’ discourse with an emphasis upon the need for a statutory basis for intervention in family life and a forensic approach to the ‘investigation’ of allegations of abuse and neglect (Parton, 2008 cited in Daniel 2010:232).

The appeal of this risk factor perspective is, according to John Pitts, fairly clear:

“In a time when politicians are unwilling to countenance robust social and economic intervention to counter social problems, and eager to demonstrate that they are ‘tough on crime’, an analysis which identifies poor child-rearing practices and weak parental control as the fundamental problem, and a strategy which targets families and classroom regimes and their capacity to inculcate self-control in unruly and disruptive children … is a political Godsend”. (Cited in Armstrong 2006:273)

(Armstrong 2006:266)

UK government policy on young people and problem behaviour is heavily focused around notions of risk, early intervention and prevention. Some policies are

aimed at the reduction of problem behaviour and future crime… Others, such as

Sure Start, are aimed more generally at providing children and families with support that will enhance

future opportunities.

Parton’s (2007, 2008) analysis of New Labour’s children’s policiesincludes a shift in language from ‘child protection’ to ‘safeguarding’ shifting focus to unmet need, which is an increasingly wide

range of adversities it is considered that the state should be concerned about. (Daniel 2010:233)

A more recent phenomenon is the re-defining and broadening of the ‘child protection’ system to become generalised under the umbrella of ‘unmet needs’ (DoH, 2000; DFES, 2004).

The search for risk factors which can be identified as precursors of future problem behaviour is a well established, if problematic, tradition

in epidemiology (Susser,1998) and

criminology (Farrington, 1994, 1995; Farrington et al., 1996)”. (Armstrong 2006:267

The expansion of research and child welfare policy is inextricably linked to the view that children are inherently

vulnerable:

‘Normal’ human development requires a considerable investment of time and effort by older humans.

Conclusion• Children are generally considered to be more ‘at risk’ than adults

based on notions of their inherent vulnerability.• Advocates of the ‘social constructionist’ approach to childhood

contest that this ‘vulnerability’ perspective minimises children’s agency.

• Policy and practice development has been influenced over the past 20 years by an actuarial and rationalistic approach in attempting to control and minimalize ‘risk’.

• It is proposed that the identification of multiple and compounding risk factors can predict future enduring problems in later life.

• Although research regarding ‘risk factors’ and ‘outcomes’ might inform accurate assessment and interventions into families with ‘unmet needs’ or that pose risks to children, on the other hand this approach may be considered political; placing blame and responsibility upon parents rather than assisting and paradoxically ‘interfering unnecessarily into the lives of children.

• Question: what is the relationship between ‘risk’, ‘prevention’, ‘resilience’?

References

• Armstrong, 2006, Becoming criminal: the cultural politics of risk.

• Beck, 1992, Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity.

• Daniel, 2010, Concepts of Adversity, Risk, Vulnerability and Resilience: A Discussion in the Context of the ‘Child Protection System’.

• Furedi, 1997, Culture of Fear.

• Meadows,2009, The Child as Social Person.