child psychology second canadian edition vasta, younger, adler, miller, ellis prepared by: mowei liu

CHILD PSYCHOLOGYCHILD PSYCHOLOGYSecond Canadian EditionSecond Canadian Edition

Vasta, Younger, Adler, Miller, EllisVasta, Younger, Adler, Miller, Ellis Prepared by:Prepared by:Mowei LiuMowei Liu

Chapter 1Chapter 1Background and TheoriesBackground and Theories

Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

• Learning Objective 1.1Learning Objective 1.1 Understand the Understand the philosophical and historical roots of child philosophical and historical roots of child psychology.psychology.

• Learning Objective 1.2Learning Objective 1.2 How can we understand the How can we understand the influences of nature and nurture, stability and influences of nature and nurture, stability and change, and uniformity and variation on child change, and uniformity and variation on child development?development?

• Learning Objective 1.3Learning Objective 1.3 Describe two major theories Describe two major theories of cognitive development.of cognitive development.

Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

• Learning Objective 1.4Learning Objective 1.4 Describe the sociocultural Describe the sociocultural approach to Developmentapproach to Development

• Learning Objective 1.5Learning Objective 1.5 Describe how Describe how environmental/learning approaches explain environmental/learning approaches explain development.development.

• Learning Objective 1.6Learning Objective 1.6 Understand evolutionary Understand evolutionary and biological approaches to development.and biological approaches to development.

What Is Developmental Psychology?What Is Developmental Psychology?

• Developmental psychologyDevelopmental psychology is concerned with is concerned with changes in behaviour and abilities across the changes in behaviour and abilities across the lifespanlifespan

• Goals of developmental psychology:Goals of developmental psychology:– DescriptionDescription: Identify children’s behaviour at various : Identify children’s behaviour at various

developmental pointsdevelopmental points– ExplanationExplanation: Determine the causes and processes : Determine the causes and processes

that govern developmental changethat govern developmental change

Why Study Children?Why Study Children?

• Benefits of childhood studies:Benefits of childhood studies:– Childhood is a period of rapid physical, cognitive, Childhood is a period of rapid physical, cognitive,

social, and emotional change social, and emotional change – Early experiences, such as those during childhood, Early experiences, such as those during childhood,

are critical in influencing later adult developmentare critical in influencing later adult development– Research on children is useful for understanding Research on children is useful for understanding

complex adult behaviorscomplex adult behaviors– Research on children has real-world applicationsResearch on children has real-world applications– Children are wondrous creatures that invite studyChildren are wondrous creatures that invite study

Early TheoristsEarly Theorists

• John Locke (1632-1704)John Locke (1632-1704)– Argued that children gain knowledge through Argued that children gain knowledge through

experience and learningexperience and learning– Environmentalist Environmentalist point of view: children are products point of view: children are products

of their environment and upbringingof their environment and upbringing– ““Tabula rasaTabula rasa”:”: The mind is a blank slate at birth; this The mind is a blank slate at birth; this

suggests that all behaviours are learned suggests that all behaviours are learned • Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

– Argued that children are born with innate knowledge Argued that children are born with innate knowledge that drives development (that drives development (nativismnativism))

Early TheoristsEarly Theorists

• Johann Gottried Von Herder (1744-1803)Johann Gottried Von Herder (1744-1803)– Examining and evaluating the specifics of a culture Examining and evaluating the specifics of a culture

is crucial to understanding human development is crucial to understanding human development ((cultural relativismcultural relativism) )

• Charles Darwin (1809-1882)Charles Darwin (1809-1882)– Developed concept of “Developed concept of “natural selectionnatural selection” in which ” in which

traits that confer advantages allow the organism to traits that confer advantages allow the organism to survivesurvive

– Theory gave rise to concept of Theory gave rise to concept of recapitulationrecapitulation – Employed early Employed early baby biographybaby biography research method research method

Pioneers of Child PsychologyPioneers of Child Psychology

• G. Stanley HallG. Stanley Hall– Referred to as the father of child psychologyReferred to as the father of child psychology– Founded the field of developmental psychologyFounded the field of developmental psychology

• James Mark BaldwinJames Mark Baldwin– First Canadian academic psychologist to study First Canadian academic psychologist to study

developmentdevelopment


• John B. WatsonJohn B. Watson– Focused research on observable behaviour; Focused research on observable behaviour;

proposed a behaviourist theory of developmentproposed a behaviourist theory of development• Arnold GesellArnold Gesell

– Focused on maturational processesFocused on maturational processes– Produced age-related norms for developmentProduced age-related norms for development


• Sigmund FreudSigmund Freud– Focused attention on early childhood experiencesFocused attention on early childhood experiences– Proposed a five-stage Proposed a five-stage theory of psychosexual theory of psychosexual

developmentdevelopment: children are born with innate sexual : children are born with innate sexual energy, termed energy, termed libidolibido • At various stages of development, libido is focused At various stages of development, libido is focused

within certain bodily regions called within certain bodily regions called erogenous zoneserogenous zones• Stimulation of these regions results in pleasure and Stimulation of these regions results in pleasure and

gratificationgratification• Stages include: oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genitalStages include: oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital• Children move from stage to stage; failure to do so Children move from stage to stage; failure to do so

results in being results in being fixatedfixated within a stage within a stage

• Sigmund FreudSigmund Freud– Freud’s theory of child development = a theory of Freud’s theory of child development = a theory of

personality formationpersonality formation– Inappropriate childhood experiences cause a Inappropriate childhood experiences cause a

child to become fixated (stuck) in the earlier child to become fixated (stuck) in the earlier stagestage

– This fixation will manifest itself in later adult This fixation will manifest itself in later adult behaviourbehaviour

– Most complex stage—phallic; Gives rise to Most complex stage—phallic; Gives rise to Oedipus complexOedipus complex, , repressionrepression, and , and identificationidentification


• Sigmund FreudSigmund Freud– First developmental theorist to propose that First developmental theorist to propose that

development represents an interaction between development represents an interaction between biological systems biological systems andand environmental influences environmental influences ((interactionist perspectiveinteractionist perspective))

– Suggested that early childhood experiences are Suggested that early childhood experiences are critical for adulthoodcritical for adulthood

– Freud spurred others to test his theories and to Freud spurred others to test his theories and to develop their own theoriesdevelop their own theories


Pioneers of Child PsychologyPioneers of Child Psychology• Erik EriksonErik Erikson

– Expanded Freud’s stages; proposed an eight-stage modelExpanded Freud’s stages; proposed an eight-stage model– Focused on social and cultural influences on development Focused on social and cultural influences on development

(psychosocial model)(psychosocial model)Age (years)Age (years) Stage of DevelopmentStage of DevelopmentBirth to 1.5Birth to 1.5 Basic trust vs. MistrustBasic trust vs. Mistrust1.5 to 31.5 to 3 Autonomy vs. ShameAutonomy vs. Shame3 to 63 to 6 Initiative vs. GuiltInitiative vs. Guilt6 to 26 to 2 Industry vs. InferiorityIndustry vs. Inferiority12 to 1812 to 18 Identity vs. Role confusionIdentity vs. Role confusionYoung adultYoung adult Intimacy vs. IsolationIntimacy vs. IsolationAdultAdult Generativity vs. StagnationGenerativity vs. StagnationOlder adultOlder adult Ego integrity vs. DespairEgo integrity vs. Despair

Issues in Developmental PsychologyIssues in Developmental Psychology

• NATURENATURE vs.vs. NURTURENURTURE– Does developmental change occur due to biological Does developmental change occur due to biological

factors or environmental factors?factors or environmental factors?• CONTINUITYCONTINUITY vs. vs. DISCONTINUITYDISCONTINUITY

– Is developmental change smooth and constant Is developmental change smooth and constant (continuous) or stage-like (discontinuous)?(continuous) or stage-like (discontinuous)?

• NORMATIVENORMATIVE vs. vs. IDIOGRAPHICIDIOGRAPHIC– Is the focus of the researcher on universals of Is the focus of the researcher on universals of

development (normative) or on individual differences development (normative) or on individual differences (idiographic)?(idiographic)?

Theories of DevelopmentTheories of Development

• Developmental psychologists align themselves with Developmental psychologists align themselves with specific theoretical approachesspecific theoretical approaches– Cognitive-developmental Cognitive-developmental approachapproach– Sociocultural Sociocultural approachapproach– Environmental/learningEnvironmental/learning approach approach– Evolutionary and biologicalEvolutionary and biological approach approach

Cognitive-Developmental Approaches:Cognitive-Developmental Approaches:Piaget’s TheoryPiaget’s Theory

• PiagetPiaget was a biologist with strong interests in how was a biologist with strong interests in how children acquire knowledge children acquire knowledge – The nature of children’s knowledge changes as they The nature of children’s knowledge changes as they

developdevelop– SchemesSchemes

• the cognitive structures that are used to understand the cognitive structures that are used to understand the worldthe world

• reflect an reflect an objectobject in the environment and the child’s in the environment and the child’s reactionreaction to that object to that object

• Development is the reorganization of knowledge Development is the reorganization of knowledge into more complex schemesinto more complex schemes

• Two functions guide cognitive developmentTwo functions guide cognitive development– OrganizationOrganization: New knowledge must be merged with : New knowledge must be merged with

old knowledgeold knowledge– AdaptationAdaptation: The survival of an organism depends on : The survival of an organism depends on

its ability to fit with the environmentits ability to fit with the environment


• Cognitive adaptation is promoted byCognitive adaptation is promoted by– AssimilationAssimilation: Making sense of new information using : Making sense of new information using

existing schemesexisting schemes– AccommodationAccommodation: Changing the existing schemes to : Changing the existing schemes to

fit with new informationfit with new information


Cognitive-Developmental Approaches:Cognitive-Developmental Approaches: Piaget’s Stages of Development Piaget’s Stages of Development

• Children move through four stagesChildren move through four stages– Sensorimotor periodSensorimotor period: Birth through age 2: Birth through age 2

• Infant schemes are simple reflexes and Infant schemes are simple reflexes and knowledge reflects interactions with people and knowledge reflects interactions with people and objectsobjects

– Preoperational periodPreoperational period: Age 2 to 6: Age 2 to 6• Child begins to use symbols (words, numbers) to Child begins to use symbols (words, numbers) to

represent the world cognitivelyrepresent the world cognitively

Cognitive-Developmental Approaches:Cognitive-Developmental Approaches: Piaget’s Stages of Development Piaget’s Stages of Development

• Piaget’s four stages (cont’d)Piaget’s four stages (cont’d)– Concrete operationsConcrete operations: Age 6 to 11: Age 6 to 11

• Child performs mental operations and logical Child performs mental operations and logical problem solvingproblem solving

– Formal operationsFormal operations: Age 12 through adulthood: Age 12 through adulthood• Child can use formal problem solving and higher Child can use formal problem solving and higher

level abstract thinkinglevel abstract thinking

Cognitive-Developmental Approaches: Cognitive-Developmental Approaches: Information-Processing ModelsInformation-Processing Models

• Human cognitive processes are similar to the Human cognitive processes are similar to the operations of computersoperations of computers

• Cognition is a system formed of three partsCognition is a system formed of three parts– Sensory inputSensory input– Information processingInformation processing– Behavioural outputBehavioural output

• Specific cognitive processes vs. developmental Specific cognitive processes vs. developmental stagesstages

• Vygotsky Vygotsky was a product of a Marxist environment, was a product of a Marxist environment, which emphasized socialism and collectivismwhich emphasized socialism and collectivism

• Individual cognitive development is a product of Individual cognitive development is a product of cultural influencescultural influences

• Thinking and problem solving are Thinking and problem solving are tools of intellectual tools of intellectual adaptationadaptation

• Through guided interactions with more experienced Through guided interactions with more experienced members of society, children learn problem-solving members of society, children learn problem-solving ((dialectical processdialectical process) which leads to ) which leads to internalizationinternalization

The Sociocultural Approach: The Sociocultural Approach: Vygotsky’s TheoryVygotsky’s Theory

• Bronfenbrenner’sBronfenbrenner’s perspective: Development perspective: Development occurs within broader social and cultural occurs within broader social and cultural environmentenvironment

• An understanding of development involves an An understanding of development involves an understanding of the interaction of child’s understanding of the interaction of child’s characteristics and child’s environment characteristics and child’s environment ((transactional influencetransactional influence))

• Proposed five systems: Proposed five systems: microsystem, microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystemchronosystem

The Sociocultural Approach: The Sociocultural Approach: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological ApproachBronfenbrenner’s Ecological Approach

Figure 1.1Figure 1.1Bronfenbrenner’s ecologicalBronfenbrenner’s ecologicalmodel of the environment.model of the environment.U. Bronfenbrenner, fromU. Bronfenbrenner, fromC. Kopp/Krakow, C. Kopp/Krakow, The Child:The Child:Development in a Social Development in a Social Context (Context (figure 12.1), © 1982 figure 12.1), © 1982 by Addison-Wesley by Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc. Reprinted Publishing Co., Inc. Reprinted with permission of Addison-with permission of Addison-Wesley Longman.Wesley Longman.

The Sociocultural Approach: The Sociocultural Approach: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological ApproachBronfenbrenner’s Ecological Approach

Environmental/Learning ApproachesEnvironmental/Learning Approaches

• Explain how a child’s experiences interact with Explain how a child’s experiences interact with biological processes to produce developmentbiological processes to produce development– Behaviour psychology Behaviour psychology

• relies heavily on learning theory to explain relies heavily on learning theory to explain developmentdevelopment

• does not invoke unseen cognitive processes to does not invoke unseen cognitive processes to explain developmentexplain development


• Human behaviour is acquired rather than inbornHuman behaviour is acquired rather than inborn• LearningLearning refers to a relatively permanent change in refers to a relatively permanent change in

behaviour that results from practice or experiencebehaviour that results from practice or experience– Definition excludes transitory changes such as Definition excludes transitory changes such as

exhaustion or drug actionsexhaustion or drug actions– Learning is reflected in observable behaviourLearning is reflected in observable behaviour– Learning is not due to biological maturationLearning is not due to biological maturation

• B.F. SkinnerB.F. Skinner focused on two distinct forms of focused on two distinct forms of learning:learning:– RespondentRespondent: Environmental stimuli elicit reflexive : Environmental stimuli elicit reflexive

responses (salivation response to a steak)responses (salivation response to a steak)– OperantOperant: The impact of voluntary behaviours on the : The impact of voluntary behaviours on the

environmentenvironment• Operant behaviours are controlled by their effectsOperant behaviours are controlled by their effects

– Child places a quarter in a candy machine and the Child places a quarter in a candy machine and the machine delivers 30 candy bars rather than one; the machine delivers 30 candy bars rather than one; the child is more likely to place a quarter in that machine child is more likely to place a quarter in that machine on the next occasionon the next occasion


Types of LearningTypes of Learning

• HabituationHabituation: the decline of a reflex response after : the decline of a reflex response after repeated elicitationrepeated elicitation

• Classical conditioningClassical conditioning: : a form of learning in which a a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus is paired with a reflexive stimulus; neutral stimulus is paired with a reflexive stimulus; after several pairings, the neutral stimulus now after several pairings, the neutral stimulus now elicits a response elicits a response

• Operant learningOperant learning:: a form of learning in which a form of learning in which behaviour changes as a result of reinforcers or behaviour changes as a result of reinforcers or punisherspunishers

Social-Learning TheorySocial-Learning Theory

• BanduraBandura added the concept of observational added the concept of observational learning to environmental/learning theorylearning to environmental/learning theory

• Observational Learning: Children learn by Observational Learning: Children learn by observing models and, as a result, experience observing models and, as a result, experience vicarious punishment or vicarious reinforcementvicarious punishment or vicarious reinforcement

• Children imitate their modelsChildren imitate their models• Human development involves an interaction Human development involves an interaction

between a person’s characteristics and behaviour between a person’s characteristics and behaviour with the environment (with the environment (reciprocal determinismreciprocal determinism))

Figure 1.2Figure 1.2 Bandura’s model of observational learning. Adapted from Albert Bandura, Bandura’s model of observational learning. Adapted from Albert Bandura, Social Social Learning TheoryLearning Theory,© 1977, p. 23. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper ,© 1977, p. 23. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.Saddle River, New Jersey.

Bandura’s Theory of Observational Learning


Figure 1.3Figure 1.3 Bandura’s model of reciprocal determinism. Adapted from “Self System in Bandura’s model of reciprocal determinism. Adapted from “Self System in Reciprocal Determinism” by Albert Bandura, 1978, Reciprocal Determinism” by Albert Bandura, 1978, American Psychologist, 33American Psychologist, 33, p. 345. , p. 345. Copyright © 1978 by the American Psychological Association. Adapted by permission.Copyright © 1978 by the American Psychological Association. Adapted by permission.


Reciprocal Determinism

Evolutionary and Biological ApproachesEvolutionary and Biological Approaches

• The focus of The focus of ethologyethology is on the role of evolutionary is on the role of evolutionary processes in developmentprocesses in development

• Ethology suggests two determinants of behaviourEthology suggests two determinants of behaviour– ImmediateImmediate environmental and internal statesenvironmental and internal states– EvolutionaryEvolutionary determinants refer to the idea that determinants refer to the idea that

behaviours are functional and that certain behaviours are functional and that certain behaviours may have conferred evolutionary behaviours may have conferred evolutionary advantages to an animal, allowing it to survive and advantages to an animal, allowing it to survive and reproducereproduce

Classical EthologyClassical Ethology

• Ethologists argue that innate behavioursEthologists argue that innate behaviours– Are Are universaluniversal to all members of the speciesto all members of the species– Require Require no learningno learning or experience or experience– Are Are stereotypedstereotyped (similar form) (similar form)– Are minimally affected by the environmentAre minimally affected by the environment

• ““Sensitive periods” are periods during which Sensitive periods” are periods during which learning is biologically programmed to occur easilylearning is biologically programmed to occur easily– ImprintingImprinting refers to the emotional bonds formed by refers to the emotional bonds formed by

young members of a species with their mothers (e.g. young members of a species with their mothers (e.g. Lorenz’s ducklings)Lorenz’s ducklings)

Applications of Ethological TheoryApplications of Ethological Theory

• Bowlby’s Bowlby’s observations on institutionalized infants observations on institutionalized infants supported the idea that close mother-infant bond supported the idea that close mother-infant bond (attachment) is crucial to survival of young(attachment) is crucial to survival of young

• SociobiologySociobiology – examines genetic effects on social – examines genetic effects on social behaviourbehaviour

• Evolutionary Development PsychologyEvolutionary Development Psychology - proposes - proposes that our current characteristics are a result of that our current characteristics are a result of adaptational challengesadaptational challenges

• Development = attributes that promote survival; Development = attributes that promote survival; natural selectionnatural selection

CopyrightCopyright Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Access Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Access Copyright (the Canadian copyright licensing agency) is unlawful. Copyright (the Canadian copyright licensing agency) is unlawful. Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.Department, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The purchaser may make The purchaser may make back-up copies for his or her own use only and not for distribution or back-up copies for his or her own use only and not for distribution or resale.resale. The author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors, The author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these files or programs or omissions, or damages caused by the use of these files or programs or from the use of the information contained herein.from the use of the information contained herein.

child psychology second canadian edition vasta, younger, adler, miller, ellis prepared by: mowei liu

Documents