chemistry dr. michael p. gillespie. chemistry chemistry is the study of matter, its chemical and...
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ChemistryDr. Michael P. Gillespie
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Chemistry
• Chemistry is the study of matter, its chemical and physical properties, the chemical changes it undergoes, and the energy changes that accompany those processes.
• Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. The changes that matter undergoes always involve either gain or loss of energy.
• Energy is the ability to do work to accomplish some change.
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Chemistry
• The study of chemistry involves matter, energy, and their interrelationship.
• Matter and energy are at the heart of chemistry.
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Scientific Method
• The scientific method is a systematic approach to the discovery of new information.
• It is a way of gaining information (facts) about the world by forming possible solutions to questions.
• Rigorous testing is employed to determine if the proposed solutions are supported.
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Basic Assumptions In Science
• There are specific causes for events observed in the natural world.
• The causes for events in nature can be identified.
• There are general rules or patterns that describe what happens in nature.
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Basic Assumptions In Science
• Repeated events probably have the same cause.
• What one person observes can be observed by others.
• The same fundamental rules apply, regardless of when or where they occur.
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Cause and Effect
• Some events are correlated (happen together).
• Some events have a cause and effect relationship (an event is a direct result of a previous event).
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Components of the Scientific Method
• Observation
• Hypotheses
• Openness to new information and ideas
• Willingness to submit ones ideas to the scrutiny of others
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Observation
• Observations are made using our senses or an extension of our senses.
• Observations are careful, thoughtful recognition of an event.
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Questioning and Exploration
• Optimal questions lend themselves to experimentation.
• Explore other sources of knowledge relevant to the question.
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Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is a statement that provides a possible answer to a question or an explanation for an observation that can be tested.
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Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis
• Logical
• Account for all relevant information
• Predict future events
• Testable
• Use the simplest hypothesis with the fewest assumptions
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Einstein
• “Make everything as simple as possible, but not simpler.”
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Testing a Hypothesis
• A good hypothesis is testable.
• It can be either supported or disproved.
• If a hypothesis cannot be disproved, confidence in it increases.
• New information can encourage scientists to reformulate an hypothesis.
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Methods for Testing a Hypothesis
• Collect relevant information.
• Make additional observations.
• Devise an experiment.
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Experiment
• An experiment is a re-creation of an event or occurrence in a manner that allows the scientist to support or disprove a hypothesis.
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Variables
• Variables are individual factors that help determine the outcome of an event.
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Controlled Experiment
• A controlled experiment is one in which only one variable is present.
• Two groups:• Control group – no manipulation of
the variable.• Experimental group – a group in
which one variable is manipulated.
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Variables
• Independent variable – is manipulated in the experiment by the scientist.
• Dependent variable – will change as a result of manipulation of the independent variable.
• There should be only one independent variable in an experiment.
• Be careful not to introduce additional variables into the experiment.
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Development of Theories and Laws
• If new evidence consistently and repeatedly supports the original hypothesis and other related hypotheses, we begin to see patterns emerge.
• Scientific theories and laws come into existence.
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Inductive Reasoning
• The process of developing general principles from the examination of many specific facts is known as inductive reasoning or induction.
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Deductive Reasoning
• The process of using general principles to predict the specific facts of a situation is called deductive reasoning or deduction.
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Scientific Theory
• A theory is a widely accepted, plausible, general statement about fundamental concepts in science that explain why things happen.
• A theory is a very broad statement, which is the result of years of observation, questioning, experimentation, and data analysis.
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Theory Vs. Hypothesis
• A hypothesis provides a possible explanation for a specific question; whereas a theory is a broad concept that shapes how scientists look at the world and how they frame their hypothesis.
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Scientific Law
• A scientific law is a uniform or constant fact of nature that describes what happens in nature.
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Theory Vs. Law
• Theory
• Describes why things happen
• Examined repeatedly
• Independently verified
• Excellent predictors of how nature behaves
• Law
• Describes what happens in nature
• Examined repeatedly
• Independently verified
• Excellent predictors of how nature behaves
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Properties of Matter
• Properties are characteristics of matter and are classified as either physical or chemical.
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States of Matter
• Three states (phases) of matter:• Solid state• Liquid state• Gaseous state.
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States of Matter
• The phases of matter are determined by the following:• The amount of kinetic energy molecules
have.• The strength of the attractive forces
between molecules.• The arrangement of molecules.
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Solid
• A solid consists of molecules with strong attractive forces and low kinetic energy.
• The molecules vibrate in place and are at fixed distances from one another.
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Liquid
• A liquid has molecules with enough kinetic energy to overcome the attractive forces that hold the molecules together.
• The molecules are still strongly attracted to one another, but they are slightly farther apart.
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Liquid
• The molecules can slide past one another.
• Liquids change shape, but they maintain their volume.
• Liquids flow and are called fluids.
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Gas
• A gas is made of molecules that have a great deal of kinetic energy.
• The attraction of the molecules to one another is overcome by the speed with which the individual molecules move.
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Gas
• The molecules collide against one another and push each other apart.
• Therefore, gases expand to fit their container.
• Vapor is the gaseous form of a substance that is usually in a liquid phase.
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States of Matter
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Water
• Water is the most common example of a substance that can exist in all three states over a relatively small temperature range.
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States of Water
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Physical Change
• A physical change produces a recognizable difference in the appearance of a substance without causing any change in its composition or identity.
• Conversion of water from one state to another constitutes a physical change.
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Physical Properties of Matter
• A physical property can be exhibited, observed or measured without changing the composition or identity of a substance.
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Physical Properties
• A practical application of this concept is in the separation of materials based upon their physical properties.
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Chemical Properties of Matter
• Chemical properties can be observed only through chemical reactions and result in a change in the composition of the material.
• The substances internal structure must be affect to observe chemical properties.
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Chemical Reaction
• A chemical reaction is a process that produces a change in matter by rearranging, removing, replacing, or adding atoms to produce new substances.
• This is achieved by either forming or breaking chemical bonds.
• A chemical reaction involves atoms interacting with other atoms to fill their outermost energy shell.
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Chemical Reaction
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Chemical Reaction
• The interacting atoms become attached or bonded to one another.
• Two types of bonds:• Ionic• Covalent
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Ionic Bonds
• A positively or negatively charges atom or molecule is called an ion.
• Ionic bonds are formed after atoms transfer electrons to achieve a full outermost energy level.
• Electrons are donated or received during the transfer to form positive or negative ions (ionization).
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Ionic Bonds
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Covalent Bonds
• A covalent bond is a chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons.
• A covalent bond in which a single pair of electrons is shared is called a single covalent bond (single bond).
• Double bond – two pairs of electrons are shared.
• Triple bond – three pairs.
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Hydrogen Bonds
• Hydrogen bonds are due to the unequal sharing of electrons and the resulting polar nature of the molecule.
• Hydrogen bonds can be either intermolecular or intramolecular.
• Hydrogen bonds hold molecules together, they do not bond atoms together. Therefore, they are not true chemical bonds.
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Intensive Vs. Extensive Properties
• Properties can be classified according to whether or not they depend upon the size of the sample.
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Intensive Properties
• An intensive property is a property of matter that is independent of the quantity of the substance.
• Density, boiling and melting points, and specific gravity are intensive properties.
• The boiling point of a single drop of water is exactly the same as the boiling point of a liter of water.
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Extensive Properties
• An extensive property depends on the quantity of a substance.
• Mass and volume are extensive properties.
• There is an obvious difference between 1 gram of silver and 1 kg of silver.
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Classification of Matter
• Chemists look for similarities in properties among various types of materials.
• The most useful classification systems are based on composition.
• All matter is either a pure substance or a mixture.
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Pure Substances
• A pure substance has only one component.
• Elements and compounds are both pure substances.• An element is a pure substance that
cannot be changed into a simpler form of matter by any chemical reaction.
• A compound is a substance resulting from the combination of two or more substances in a definite, reproducible way.
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Water
• Pure water is a pure substance.
• The elements hydrogen and oxygen may combine to form the compound water, H20.
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Mixture
• A mixture is a combination of two or more pure substances in which each substance retains its own identity.
• Alcohol and water may be combined in a mixture. They coexist as pure substances because they do not undergo a chemical reaction; they exist as thoroughly mixed discrete molecules.
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Mixture
• The substances are not in set proportions.
• There are an infinite number of combinations of quantities of alcohol and water that can be mixed.
• You can have a small amount of water and a large amount of alcohol or vice versa.
• Either way, it is still an alcohol-water mixture.
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Types of Mixtures
• A homogenous mixture has a uniform composition. It’s particles are well mixed, or thoroughly intermingled. (i.e. alcohol-water)
• A heterogenous mixture has a nonuniform composition. (i.e. salt and pepper or concrete).
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Solutions
• A solution is a liquid mixture of ions or molecules of two or more substances.
• The process of making a solution is called dissolving.
• The solvent is the component present in the larger amount.
• The solute is the component that dissolves into the solvent.
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Solutions
• Aqueous solution – a solid, liquid, or gas dissolved in water.
• Gaseous solution – a mixture of gasses such as air.
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Concentrations
• Concentration is a measure of the number of particles of a substance, or the mass of those particles, that are contained in a specified volume.
• The amounts of solute and solvent are the concentration of a solution.
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Data
• A scientific experiment produces data. Each piece of data is the result of a single measurement or observation. Mass, length, volume, time, temperature, and energy are common types of data obtained from chemical experiments.
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Data
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Results
• Results are the outcome of an experiment. Data and results may be identical; however, typically, several related pieces of data are combined and logic is used to produce a result.
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Unit
• A unit of measurement is a definite amount of a physical quality.
• A unit defines the basic quantity of mass, volume, time, or whatever quantity is being measured.
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Experimental Quantities
• Mass
• Length
• Volume
• Time
• Temperature
• Energy
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Mass Vs. Weight
• Mass describes the quantity of matter in an object.
• Weight and mass are NOT synonymous.
• Weight is the force of gravity on an object.
• Weight = mass * acceleration due to gravity.
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Mass Vs. Weight
• When gravity is constant, weight and mass are directly proportional, but gravity is not constant.
• Mass is independent of gravity. It is the result of a comparison of an unknown mass with a known mass called a standard mass.
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Atomic Mass Unit
• An atom of a substance has a very tiny mass.
• An atom of hydrogen has a mass of 1.661 X 10-24 g.
• One atomic mass unit is a more convenient way to represent the mass of one hydrogen atom, rather than 1.661 X 10-24 g.
• Units should be chosen to suit the quantity of the item being described.
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Length
• Length is the distance between two points.
• The standard metric unit of length is the meter.
• Larger distances are measured in kilometers, smaller distances are measured in centimeters or millimeters. Very small distances such as the distances between atoms are measured in nanometers.
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Volume
• Volume is the space occupied by an object.
• The standard metric unit of volume is the liter.
• The volumetric flask is designed to contain a specified volume of liquid.
• The graduated cylinder, pipet, and buret dispense a desired volume of liquid.
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Time
• The standard metric unit of time is the second.
• Matter can be characterized by the time required for a certain process to occur.
• The rate of a chemical reaction is a measure of change as a function of time.
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Temperature
• Temperature is the degree of “hotness” of an object.
• The common temperature scales are Fahrenheit (⁰F), Celsius (⁰C), and Kelvin (K).
• Two convenient reference points that are used to calibrate a thermometer are the freezing and boiling points of water.
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Energy
• Energy is the ability to do work.
• It can be categorized as either kinetic energy or potential energy.
• Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
• Potential energy is the energy of position. It is stored energy that is not yet doing work.
• All energy is either kinetic or potential.
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Forms of Energy
• The principal forms of energy include:• Light• Heat• Electrical• Mechanical• Chemical
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Characteristics Of Energy
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
• Energy may be converted from one form to another.
• Conversion of energy from one form to another always occurs with less than 100% efficiency.
• All chemical reactions involve either a “gain” or “loss” of energy.
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1st Law of Thermodynamics
• The 1st law of thermodynamics is also known as the law of conservation of energy.
• Energy is neither created or destroyed.
• Energy can be converted from one form to another, but the total energy remains constant.
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Concentration
• Concentration is a measure of the number of particles of a substance, or the mass of those particles, that are contained in a specified volume.
• Concentration is used to represent m ixtures of different substances.• i.e. concentration of oxygen in the air.
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Density
• Density is the ratio of mass to volume.• d = mass / volume = m / V
• It is not dependent upon the quantity of the material present and is therefore an intensive property.
• Each substance has a unique density.
• One milliliter of air and one milliliter of iron do not weigh the same amount.
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Specific Gravity
• Values of density are often related to a standard, well-known reference, the density of pure water at 4⁰C.
• This “referenced” density is called the specific gravity, the ratio of the density of the object in question to the density of pure water at 4⁰C.• specific gravity = density of object g/mL) /
density of water (g / mL)
• The density of water at 4⁰Cnis 1.00 g/mL.