chemistry curricullum summary
TRANSCRIPT
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
1/24
Unit 2: Chemistry
IB Biology Higher Level Topic 3
Campbell Text References:
Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry
Chapter 3: Water ChemistryChapter 4: Carbon ChemistryChapter 5: Macromolecules
Chapter 2 Basic Chemistry
Vocabulary:
Matter: Anything that takes up space and has mass. For our purposes , this means anythingmade up of atoms
Elements Any substance that cannot be broken down into any other substance. This meansall the atoms represented on the Periodic Table of Elements The most common elements inthe human body are C,H,O and N which make up 96% of its total mass (SEE DIAGRAM
BELOW)
Compound- A substance consisting of two or more elements in a fixed ration. Ex. TableSalt (NaCl) is an ionic compound because it is joined by ionic bonds and water (H2O) is a
molecular compound because it is joined by covalent bonds
Atom - The smallest unit of matter that retains the properties (characteristics) of an elememt Neutrons An electrically neutral particle (no electrical charge) found in the nucleus of an
atom.
Protons- A particle in the nucleus of an atom with a positive electrical charge Electrons - A particle(s) which moves around the nucleus of an atom with a negative
electrical charge
Atomic Number The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom Potential Energy- The energy stored by matter as a result of its location or spatial
arrangement. For our purposes, we say that the electrons in an atom have potential energy in
proportion to their distance from the nucleus. Ie. the farther they are away from the nucleus
(farthest shell) the more potential energy they have that could be released to do cellular
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
2/24
work (SEE DIAGRAM BELOW) (See the Electron Shell Diagram Below for more
description of this concept)
Valence Electrons- The electrons in the outermost electron shell of an atom Valence Shell The outermost electron shell of an atom Chemical Bond An attraction between two atoms resulting from the sharing of outer shell
electrons (covalent) or the presence of opposite charges on the atoms. Either way, the twoatoms gain complete outer shells in the process (SEE DIAGRAMS BELOW)
a) Covalent Bond (non-polar and polar) A type of strong chemical bond in whichtwo atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons.
b) Ionic Bond A chemical bond resulting from the attraction between oppositely
charged ions.
Molecule- Two or more atoms joined together by covalent bonds Ionic compound (salts) A compound resulting from the formation of an ionic bond also
called a salt
Electronegativity- The attraction of an atom for the electrons of a covalent bond. Someelements (like oxygen) have high a electronegativity. This means that when oxygen is in a
molecule with Hydrogen (hydrogen has a lower electonegativity), the oxygen will exert morepull/attraction on the shared electrons than hydrogen will. This causes oxygen to take on aslight negative charge and hydrogen takes on a slight positive charge. (SEE DIAGRAM
BELOW)
Ion- An atom that has gained or lost electrons and therefore has acquired a charge. (this isbecause the number of protons no longer balance the number of electrons)
a)Cation a positively charged ion (ex. Potassium ion is K+)
b)Anion- a negatively charged ion (ex Chlorine ion is Cl-)
Hydrogen bonds- A type of weak chemical bond formed when the slightly positivehydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negativeatom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule (SEE DIAGRAM BELOW)
Chemical Reactons A process leading to chemical changes in matter-it involves themaking or breaking of chemical bonds.
a) Reactants A starting material in a chemical reactionb) Products An ending material in a chemical reaction
Concept Check 2.1 - What four chemical elements are most abundant in the food you ateyesterday?
Concept Check 2.2 - Look at the periodic table of elements (2 pages ahead) , and determine
the atomic number of magnesium. How many protons and electrons does it have? Howmany electron shells? How many valence electrons are in the valence shell
Concept Check 2.3 - Why does the following structure fail to make sense chemically?H-C=C-H
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
3/24
The Elements which make up Living Organisms
Atomic Structure
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
4/24
Electron Shell Diagram
Periodic Table of Elements
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
5/24
Polar Covalent Bonds in a Water Molecule and Electronegativity Concept
Ionic Bonds
Different Ways of representing Molecules
You must know the difference between a Molecular Formula, An Electron Shell Diagram,
a Structural Formula, and a Space-filling Model. The important thing to remember is that All ofthese formulas and models are simply different ways of writing or understanding the molecules
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
6/24
Hydrogen Bonds
Do Several of the CD Activities in Chapter 2 as necessary to Review
Review Test Basic Chemistry
1. Atoms are composed of
a. protons. c. electrons.
b. neutrons. d. All of the above
2. The electrons of an atom
a. are found in the nucleus along with the protons.
b. occupy the space surrounding the nucleus.
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
7/24
c. have a positive charge.
d. are attached to the positive charge of neutrons.
3. The smallest particle of matter that can retain the chemical properties of carbon is a(n)
a. carbon molecule. c. carbon atom.b. carbon macromolecule. d. element.
4. A substance that is composed of only one type of atom is called a(n)
a. nucleus. c. element.
b. cell. d. molecule.
5. A molecule that has a partial positive charge on one side and a partial negative charge on the other side is called a
a. nonpolar molecule. c. charged molecule.
b. polar molecule. d. bipolar molecule.
6. Sharing of electrons in the outer energy levels of two atoms
a. results in ion formation.
b. occurs in covalent bonds.
c. only occurs if both are atoms of the same element.
d. is found only among carbon atoms.
7. Acidic solutions have a pH that is
a. less than 7. c. a negative number.
b. between 7 and 14. d. more than 7.
8. Each individual element listed on the periodic table is composed of the same
a. ions c. molecules
b. atoms d. compounds
9. .Using a periodic table, calculate how many electrons Nitrogen (N) must aquire (get) in order to have a filled outer or
valence shell (to be happy!)
a. 1 c. 3
b. 2 d. 4
10. Using the periodic table, choose which element would be stable all by itself and would not need to react with any
other element to be happy.a. lithium c. boron
b. neon d. oxygen
11. Based on your knowledge of bonding and using the periodic table, what kind of bond would you expect Lithum to
make with other elements?
a. ionic c. polar covalent
b. covalent d. dipolar ionic
12. Using the periodic table, how many covalent bonds would you expect Sulpher (S) to make with another element
a. 1 c. 3b. 2 d. 4
13. Using the periodic table, how many protons does phosphorous have?a. 10 c. 20
b. 15 d. 25
14. If an element has 8 protons, it usually also has 8
a. electrons c. neutrons
b. electrons and neutrons d. None of the above
15. Using the periodic table, how many covalent bonds would you expect Nitrogen (N) to make with another element
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
8/24
16.. Which elements are the most common to living organisms?
a. Carbon c. Oxygen e. All of the aboveb. Hydrogen d. Nitrogen
Key
1)d 2)b 3)c 4)c 5)b 6)b 7)a 8)b 9)c 10)b 11)a 12)b 13)b 14)b 15)c 16)e
Chapter 3 and 4 Water and Carbon Chemistry
Vocabulary: Polar molecule- a molecule (like water) with opposite charges on opposite sides Cohesion- the binding together/attraction of like-molecules (such as two water molecules) Adhesion- the attraction between different kinds of molecules Surface Tension- a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid. Water has
a high surface tension because of the hydrogen boding between surface molecules
Kinetic Energy- the energy of motion- moving matter does work by imparting motion to othermatter
Specific Heat- the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to changeits temperature by 1 degree Celsius. Since water has a high specific heat, it is able to hold onto its
heat and maintain its temperature which helps living organisms that are living in water or who have
water in their bodies.
Solution- A liquid that is a mixture of two or more substances.a) Solvent- the liquid part of a solution it is the part that dissolves substancesb) Solute the solid part of a solution which is dissolved in the solvent
Hydrophilic- Having an attraction for water (water loving) Hydrophobic- Having an aversion for water (water fearing) Dissociation of water molecules- Water molecules (H2O) sometimes break apart into H+ and OH-
ions. So any given sample of water has H2O molecules, H+ ions and OH- ions
pH Scale - a measure of the H+ ion concentration in water. The scale ranges from 1-14 with thehighest H+ ion concentrations at the low end of the scale (Ph of 1-6). We call these solutions Acidic.Neutral Ph is 7 and Basic (or alkaline Ph is 8-14). The important thing to remember is that most
living organisms operate best under neutral Ph. If the Ph gets too acidic or alkaline, living organisms
begin to have problems.
Organic- Molecules that do not contain carbon usually part of living organisms Inorganic- Molecules that do not contain carbon usually not part of living organisms Organic Chemistry- The study of carbon compounds like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and
DNA
a. 1 c. 3
b. 2 d. 4
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
9/24
Functional Groups: A specific configuration of atoms, commonly attached to the carbonskeletons of organic molecules. These groups are the parts of a molecule that are invovedin chemical reactions with other molecules.
ATP: This stands for Adenosine Triphosphate. This molecule stores energy that is used todrive chemical reactions in cells. The energy is released when the last covalent bond breaks,
resulting in ADP + P.
Describe the most commonly occurring chemical elements in living organisms and their
functions
Functions of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen
CarbonForms organic molecules / carbohydrates /
fats / proteins / nucleic acids;
HydrogenForms organic molecules / carbohydrates / fats /
proteins / nucleic acids /
OxygenAerobic respiration;
NitrogenFormation of amino acids / proteins /
nucleotides / ATP / nucleic acids / DNA / RNA;
Describe other elements needed by living organisms that are need in smaller amounts, theirlocation and their functions
Molecule/Ion/Tissue Function
Phosphorus ATP / ADP energy storage and releaseDNA / RNA / nucleotides; genetic materialPhospholipids structure of cell membrane
Iron hemomoglobin; transports oxygen (in the blood);
Sulfur Found in some proteins, Varied Functionsvitamins, and hormones.
Calcium Bone tissue and teeth Bone structure Sodium Ions inNerve Cells Nerve Impulse
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
10/24
Surface Tension of Liquid Water (picture on right) is produced by the attraction between
adjacent water molecules
Do 3.1 Polarity of Water
Do 3.2 Cohesion of Water
Explain the relationship between the properties of water and its uses in living organisms in
maintaining constant internal temperatures, as a transport medium, and general habitat (6
marks)
Water has a high heat capacity. This means it can hold a lot of heat and this helps many animalsto maintain a constant internal temperature in cold climates Water is also an excellent
coolant when it evaporates from skin and this quality helps them maintain a constant internal
temperature in hot climates ;
Water is a great solvent. This means it is capable of dissolving substances in it for transportwithin individual organisms; For example, blood is mostly water and enables dissolvessubstances such as glucose to be transported to cells for their source of energy. Also, plant
sap is mostly water and enables minerals in the soil to be transported from the roots to the
leaves through the plants vascular system.
Water has cohesion This means that individual water molecules are slightly attracted to eachother (forming hydrogen bonds). As a result, water and its dissolved minerals can be drawnup from roots to leaves in a continuous chain of water molecules. This is called capillary
action
Water is transparent allows plants to photosynthesize in water / allows aquatic animals to see; Water floats when it freezes lakes / oceans do not freeze, allowing life under the ice; Water provides aquatic habitat A place for aquatic organisms to live;
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
11/24
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
12/24
Functional Groups (functional groups are the parts of the carbon compounds/molecules that
are involved in chemical reactions) ****See Figure 4.10 in Concept 4.3 for more information
1. Hydroxyl - OH2. Carboxyl- COOH3. Amino- NH24. Phosphate- PO4
Do Activity 4.3 Functional Groups
Do Concept Check 4.2 #1 and #3
Do Concept Check 4.3 #1 and #2
Chapter 5 Macromolecules
Vocabulary:
Macromolecule_ Term used to describe large molecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteinsand nucleic acids
Polymer- A long chainlike molecule consisting of repeating units of the same building blocks(monomers) linked by covalent bonds. These include 3 of the 4 organic macromolecules:
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
13/24
proteins, carbs, and nucleic acids (not lipids)
Monomers: The repeating unit molecules of polymers. Examples of Monomers aremonosaccharides, nucleotides and amino acids
Condensation/Dehydration Reaction- A water of molecule is removed to form a bond(anabolic reaction) This reaction is used to link monomers together
Hydrolysis- A water of molecule is added to bread a bond (catabolic reaction) . this reaction isused to break polymers down into monomers
Carbohydrates: A sugar (mono, di, or polysaccharide) that has a 1:2:1 ratio of C:H:C ex.glucose is a monosaccaride with a molecular formula of C6H12O6
Lipids A family of compounds that includes fats, phosophlipids and steroids. All are insolublein water (ie hydrophobic)
Proteins: A three-dimensional polymer constructed from a set of 20 amino acid monomers Monosaccharides (simple sugars) like glucose, ribose and fructose join to form
polysaccharides which are carbohydrates
Disaccharides-a double sugar consisting of two monosaccarides joined by dehydration synthesis Polysaccharides- a polymer of up to over 1000 monosaccharides, formed by dehydration
synthesis. The most common polysaccharide is starch which is a storage molecule used in
plants that consists of long chains of glucose molecules
Amino Acids (20 different kinds) join to form polypeptides which form proteins Nucleotidesjoin to form DNA and RNA
Condensation/Dehydration and Hydrolysis Reactions are Shown Below
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
14/24
Outline the role of condensation and hydrolysis in the relationships between monomers
and polymers. (2 marks)
Condensation- A water of molecule is removed to form a bond (anabolic reaction)
Hydrolysis: A water of molecule is added to bread a bond (catabolic reaction)
Which of the following reactions occurs when a dipeptide is formed between 2
amino acids?
A. Hydrolysis
B. Denaturation
C. Condensation
D. Oxidation
Answer : C
Be able to idenfity the structures of the Glucose, Ribose, Amino Acids and Fatty Acids
Below
Glucose Sugar molecule
Ribose Sugar Molecule
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
15/24
Fatty Acid Molecule
Amino Acid Molecule (This is only a typical diagrahm there are 20 specific types shown on
Gohitr 5.17 in Concept 5.4
Please Note: The R group in the diagram shown above is what determines which of the 20 amino
acids the molecule is. The other parts (NH3 and COOH groups) are the same for any amino acid
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
16/24
The diagrams below show various molecular structures.
CH C
C
C
CC
C
H
H
H
H
H
HH
N C
R
C
O
OH
H
CH OH
C
H
HOH C
C
OH
H
C
H
OH
C
H
OH
OO
O
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
(CH )3 2
2
n
I.
III.
II.
IV.2
(a) Identify which of the diagrams represent
(i) the structure of glucose.
.................Answer is III.................................................................................................
(ii) the structure of amino acids.
...................Answer is IV..............................................................................................
(iii) the structure of fatty acids.
....................Answer is I .............................................................................................
What molecule is molecule II? (Answer is Ribose)
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
17/24
State Types of Bonds that join monomers
Joining two adjacent monosaccharides - saccharide bond
Joining two adjacent amino acids - peptide bonds
List three examples of each of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
Monosaccharides: glucose, galactose, fructose (fruit sugar) Dissaccharides: maltose, lactose (milk sugar) , and sucrose (table sugar) Polysaccharides: starch (plant energy storage) glycogen (animal energy storage) and cellulose
(adds strength to plant cell walls)
State one function of each of the following carbohydrates
Plants and Animals
Glucose: Provides energy for cellular respiration Sucrose: Provides energy for cellular respiration
Animals only
Lactose (milk sugar) : Provides energy for cellular respiration Glycogen: Stores energy in the liver of animals for later use
Plants only
Starch: Stores energy in roots of plants Fructose (fruit sugar) : Provides energy for cellular respiration Cellulose; Adds strength to cell walls of plants
Do Activity 5.2 Carbohydrates
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
18/24
Compare the use of carbohydrates and lipids for energy storage in animals and plants
Carbohydrates
stored as glycogen in animals(in liver) stored as starch in plants (in roots) more easily digested than lipids so energy can be released more quickly;
Lipids:
stored as fat in animals long-term energy storage more energy per gram than carbohydrates;
**Sources of Lipids for Vegans (people who eat no animal products) include margarine / sunflower
seeds / vegetable oil / peanuts / nuts
List 4 Functions of Lipids (know at least two of these)
energy storage / energy supply; cushioning/protection; thermal insulation; constituent of cell membranes;
Do Activity 5.3 Lipids
Protein Structure and Function
Dont Forget: The Shape of a Protein is Key to Its Function!!!!
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
19/24
Describe the four levels of structure in a protein molecule (See pages 82 and 83 in
Textbook)
Primary Structure is the unique sequence of amino acids, each linked together by apeptide bonds
Secondary Structure is the Beta pleated sheets and alpha helix Tertiary structure in globular proteins involves the folding of polypeptides. This folding
pattern is stabilized by sereral types of bonds including hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds
Quaternary structure of proteins is the linking together of two or more polypeptidesubunits to form a single protein using the same bonding as for tertiary structure. An
example of this is hemoglobin which has 4 subunits
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
20/24
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
21/24
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
22/24
Outline the difference between fibrous and globular proteins, with reference to two
examples of each protein type
Fibrous proteins are in their secondary structure, which could be in the alpha helix orbeta pleated forms.
They are made of a repeated sequence of amino acids that can be coiled tightlyaround in a pattern that makes it a very strong structure.
Two examples are keratin (in hair and skin) and collagen (in tendons, cartilage, andbones).
Globular proteins are in their tertiary or quaternary structure, which is folded, creatinga globular, three-dimensional shape.
An example of globular proteins are all enzymes
(Know at least 4 functions of proteins including a specific example)
. Hormones Insulin protein helps regulate blood sugar Enzymes Catalase protein catalyzes breakdown of hydrogen peroxide waste in blood Transport Proteins - In cell membrane (ion channels and proton pumps for active
transport)
Structural proteins collagen (found in many animal cell tissue) / keratin / tubulin / fibroin Defence antibodies are proteins Receptors hormone receptor / neurotransmitter receptor on the cell surface
Do Activity 5.4 Protein Functions
Do Activity 5.4 Protein Structure
Explain the significance of polar and non-polar amino acids. (4 marks)
Non-polar amino acids have non-polar (neutrally charged) R groups. \ Polar amino acids have R chains with polar groups (charged either positive or
negative).
Proteins with a lot of polar amino acids make the proteins hydrophyllic and thereforeable to dissolve in water.
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
23/24
Proteins with many non-polar amino acids are more hydrophobic and are less solublein water.
With these abilities, proteins fold themselves so that the hydrophilic ones are on theinner side and allows hydrophilic molecules and ions to pass in and out of the cells
through the channels they form.
These channels are vital passages for many substances in and out of the cell.
DNA Structure (Be able to draw and label a DNA molecule showing the following
features)
The composition of the backbone of a DNA molecule is alternating sugar and photphatemolecules
Bases are toward the center AT and G---C A hydrogen bond connects adjacent base pairs between the two strands of DNA
Explain the structure of the DNA double helix, including its subunits and the way
in which they are bonded together.
subunits are nucleotides; one base, one deoxyribose and one phosphate in each nucleotide; four different bases adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine; nucleotides linked up with sugar-phosphate bonds; two strands (of nucleotides) linked together; Complementary bases (A to T and G to C) hydrogen bonds between bases;
Do Activity 5.5 Nucleic Acid Structure
-
7/31/2019 Chemistry Curricullum Summary
24/24
The parts of a deoxyribose molecule to which phosphates bind in DNA are
Positions III and V
CH OH
IV
H H
H
H
H OH
OH
II
III
I2
O
V
This symbol indicates an IB Test Question
This symbol indicates a particularly important concept usually higher-levelthinking
This symbol indicates a question you should know the answer to
Link to InternetWord
Doc: Link to a Word Document
: This symbol indicates a required CD Activity on Campbell