chemicals of life ii water, carbohydrates and lipids

Chemicals of Life IIChemicals of Life II

Water, Carbohydrates and Water, Carbohydrates and LipidsLipids

Section OneSection One

Inorganic CompoundsInorganic Compounds

Introduction...Introduction...

• The chemicals of life make up the The chemicals of life make up the protoplasm of an organism.protoplasm of an organism.

• Let’s trace the structure of a large Let’s trace the structure of a large multicellular organism down to the chemical multicellular organism down to the chemical level...level...

• An organism is composed of several systems An organism is composed of several systems of of organsorgans that function (work) together. that function (work) together.

• Organs are composed of Organs are composed of tissuestissues..

• Tissues are composed of Tissues are composed of cellscells..

• Cells are composed of Cells are composed of protoplasmprotoplasm..

ProtoplasmProtoplasm

• These are the major compounds that These are the major compounds that comprise protoplasm:comprise protoplasm:

LipidsLipids CarbohydratesCarbohydrates Inorganic CompoundsInorganic Compounds Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids ProteinsProteins

• These These compoundscompounds are composed of are composed of many different many different elementselements..

The Elements of LifeThe Elements of Life

• There are many elements directly of There are many elements directly of indirectly necessary to all living organisms. indirectly necessary to all living organisms. These symbols represent only a small These symbols represent only a small number of those used by an organism.number of those used by an organism.

Elements Found In Large Elements Found In Large Quantities…Quantities…

• Six elements make up about 98% or Six elements make up about 98% or an organism’s weight.an organism’s weight.

Remember The Word Remember The Word “SPONCH”…“SPONCH”…

Sulfur 1%

Phosphorus 1%

Oxygen 63%

Nitrogen 5%

Carbon 19%

Hydrogen 9%

Elements Found In Small Elements Found In Small Quantities…Quantities…

• Living organisms contain Living organisms contain very smallvery small quantities of the elements listed below.quantities of the elements listed below.

• These elements are called These elements are called trace elementstrace elements..

• Please note: There are many more trace Please note: There are many more trace elements than those shown here.elements than those shown here.

Trace ElementsTrace Elements

• Here are the names of these trace elements:Here are the names of these trace elements:

Copper

Calcium

Magnesium

Iron

Potassium

Chlorine

Sodium

Trace elements make up about 2%

of an organism’s

weight.

The Elements of LifeThe Elements of Life

• Elements combine in many ways to form Elements combine in many ways to form compounds in living organisms.compounds in living organisms.

• Organic compoundsOrganic compounds are those found in are those found in living organisms that form hydrogen to living organisms that form hydrogen to carbon bonds.carbon bonds.

• In this section you examine four types of In this section you examine four types of compounds that do compounds that do notnot form carbon to form carbon to hydrogen bonds.hydrogen bonds.

• They are They are inorganic compoundsinorganic compounds..

Examples of Inorganic Examples of Inorganic Compounds…Compounds…

TypeType FormulaFormula NameName

WaterWater HH2200 WaterWater

SaltsSalts NaClNaCl Sodium Sodium ChlorideChloride

AcidsAcids HClHCl Hydrochloric Hydrochloric AcidAcid

BasesBases NaOHNaOH Sodium Sodium HydroxideHydroxide

Water is by far the most plentiful of all the compounds in organisms.

WaterWater

• Let’s try to determine what Let’s try to determine what percent percent volumevolume of an organism is of an organism is waterwater..

• Approximately what volume of an Approximately what volume of an organism’s body do you think is water?organism’s body do you think is water?

• MostMost of an organism’s volume is taken up of an organism’s volume is taken up by by waterwater..

Approximately 70%

The Water MoleculeThe Water Molecule

• Let’s look at a Let’s look at a waterwater molecule to molecule to understand some of the properties of this understand some of the properties of this important compound.important compound.

8P8N

1P 1PHydrogen Hydrogen

Oxygen

--

-

-

-

--

-

-

-


• Let’s simplify the diagram to explain some Let’s simplify the diagram to explain some of the characteristics of the molecule.of the characteristics of the molecule.

• There is an angle of 109 degrees between There is an angle of 109 degrees between the hydrogen atoms.the hydrogen atoms.

H H

O

109°


• Notice that the hydrogen and oxygen atoms do not share Notice that the hydrogen and oxygen atoms do not share their their electronselectrons evenly. evenly.

• This uneven distribution of electrons gives the molecule a This uneven distribution of electrons gives the molecule a slight positive chargeslight positive charge on one end and a on one end and a slight negative slight negative chargecharge on the other. on the other.

8P8N

1P 1PHydrogen Hydrogen

Oxygen

--

-

-

-

--

-

-

-

Try This Question:Try This Question:

• Which picture, A or B, correctly shows the Which picture, A or B, correctly shows the charge on the water molecule?charge on the water molecule?

H H

O

H H

O

+

+-

-

The Polar MoleculeThe Polar Molecule

• Because the water molecule has a separation of Because the water molecule has a separation of charges, it is called a charges, it is called a polarpolar molecule. molecule.

• Let’s turn, move and simplify the water molecule Let’s turn, move and simplify the water molecule to show another characteristic.to show another characteristic.

• What effect do you suppose these polar What effect do you suppose these polar molecules have on each other? They molecules have on each other? They _____________._____________.

+ - + -

attract

Hydrogen BondingHydrogen Bonding

• This attraction forms a weak This attraction forms a weak hydrogen bondhydrogen bond between the water molecules.between the water molecules.

• Hydrogen bonding makes water the best solvent in Hydrogen bonding makes water the best solvent in nature.nature.

• Let’s see why water is such a good solvent by Let’s see why water is such a good solvent by observing what happens to a salt as it dissolves.observing what happens to a salt as it dissolves.

+ - + -

Adding Salt To Water…Adding Salt To Water…

• Sodium chloride (table salt) dissociates Sodium chloride (table salt) dissociates (separates into its parts) to form ions. The (separates into its parts) to form ions. The salt then dissolves in the water.salt then dissolves in the water.

• NaCl NaCl Na Na++ + Cl + Cl--

• The ions are kept in solution by the action The ions are kept in solution by the action of water molecules.of water molecules.

Adding Salt To Water…Adding Salt To Water…

• Polar water molecules form structures around the ions.Polar water molecules form structures around the ions.

• Notice that the water molecules position themselves in Notice that the water molecules position themselves in a certain manner.a certain manner.

• These structures are called These structures are called hydration shellshydration shells..

NaNa+++

++

+

-- -- ClCl--

+

- +

-+

-

+

-

Hydration ShellsHydration Shells

• Hydration shells keep the ions in solution.Hydration shells keep the ions in solution.

• The ions are now capable of forming new The ions are now capable of forming new combinations (inorganic salts) when other combinations (inorganic salts) when other ions are added.ions are added.

• Watch as potassium and iodide ions are Watch as potassium and iodide ions are added to water.added to water.

• Potassium and iodide ions also have Potassium and iodide ions also have hydration shells that keep them in hydration shells that keep them in solution.solution.

Potassium & Iodide IonsPotassium & Iodide Ions

• Let’s see the possible combinations that Let’s see the possible combinations that can be created by using sodium, can be created by using sodium, potassium, chloride and iodide ions.potassium, chloride and iodide ions.

KK+++

++

+

-- -- II--

+

- +

-+

-

+

-

Study The Table Below…Study The Table Below…

Sodium = NaSodium = Na Iodide = IIodide = I

Potassium = KPotassium = K Chloride = ClChloride = Cl

SodiumSodium PotassiumPotassium

ChlorideChloride NaClNaCl KClKCl

IodideIodide NaINaI KIKI

Use of Inorganic Use of Inorganic CompoundsCompounds

• Ions of inorganic compounds play a vital Ions of inorganic compounds play a vital role in several cell processes such as role in several cell processes such as nerve action and osmosis.nerve action and osmosis.

• They are also found as components of They are also found as components of more complex compounds such as more complex compounds such as chlorophyll in leaf cells and hemoglobin in chlorophyll in leaf cells and hemoglobin in red blood cells.red blood cells.

Plant Cell Red Blood Cells

AcidsAcids

• Acids and bases are important substances that affect Acids and bases are important substances that affect many cell functions. Let’s first examine acids.many cell functions. Let’s first examine acids.

• Hydrochloric Acid = HClHydrochloric Acid = HCl• Nitric Acid = HNONitric Acid = HNO33

• Carbonic Acid = HCarbonic Acid = H22COCO33

• AcidsAcids dissociate to form dissociate to form ionsions when dissolved in water. when dissolved in water.• Hydrochloric Acid Hydrochloric Acid H H++ ClCl--

• Nitric Acid Nitric Acid H H++ NONO33--

• Carbonic AcidCarbonic Acid H H++ H H++ COCO33——

• What What ionion is present when acids is present when acids dissociatedissociate??Answer: H+

AcidsAcids

• When When acidsacids dissociate in water, there are dissociate in water, there are many many hydrogen (Hhydrogen (H++)) ions released. ions released.

• Solutions containing Solutions containing hydrogenhydrogen ions are ions are acidicacidic..

• The greater the The greater the concentrationconcentration of of hydrogenhydrogen ions, the stronger the ions, the stronger the acidacid..

BasesBases

• Sodium hydroxide = NaOHSodium hydroxide = NaOH

• Potassium hydroxide = KOHPotassium hydroxide = KOH

• Ammonium hydroxide = NHAmmonium hydroxide = NH44OHOH

• BasesBases dissociate to form dissociate to form ionsions when dissolved in when dissolved in water.water.

• Sodium hydroxide Sodium hydroxide Na Na++ OHOH--

• Potassium hydroxidePotassium hydroxide K K++ OHOH--

• Ammonium hydroxideAmmonium hydroxide NH NH44++ OHOH--

• What What ionion is always present when is always present when basesbases dissociate? dissociate?Answer: OH-

BasesBases

• When When inorganic basesinorganic bases dissociate in dissociate in water, there are many water, there are many hydroxide (OHhydroxide (OH--)) ions released.ions released.

• Solutions containing Solutions containing hydroxidehydroxide ions are ions are basicbasic or or alkalinealkaline..

• The greater the The greater the concentrationconcentration of of hydroxidehydroxide ions, the more ions, the more basicbasic the the solution.solution.

pH ScalepH Scale

• Scientists use the Scientists use the pH scalepH scale to indicate the to indicate the concentrationconcentration of H of H++ or OH or OH-- ions in a solution. ions in a solution.

• Solutions with a pH Solutions with a pH less than 7less than 7 are are acidicacidic..

• AcidsAcids with a pH less than 3 are with a pH less than 3 are strong acidsstrong acids. . They have high concentrations of HThey have high concentrations of H++ ions. ions.

• AcidsAcids with a pH greater than 4 are with a pH greater than 4 are weak weak acidsacids. They have lower hydrogen ion . They have lower hydrogen ion concentrations.concentrations.

• Moderate acidsModerate acids are those with a pH of 3 to 4. are those with a pH of 3 to 4.

Acids Water Bases

0 7 14

pH ScalepH Scale


• WaterWater dissociates slightly to produce equal dissociates slightly to produce equal and low concentrations of and low concentrations of HH++ and and OHOH-- ions. ions.

• Water is Water is neutralneutral (neither acidic nor basic), (neither acidic nor basic), and has a pH of 7.and has a pH of 7.

Acids Water Bases

0 7 14

pH ScalepH Scale


• Solutions with a pH Solutions with a pH greater than 7greater than 7 are are basicbasic..

• BasesBases with a pH greater than 11 are with a pH greater than 11 are strong strong basesbases. They have a high hydroxide ion . They have a high hydroxide ion concentration.concentration.

• BasesBases with a pH less than 10 are with a pH less than 10 are weak basesweak bases. . They have a low hydroxide ion concentration.They have a low hydroxide ion concentration.

• Moderate basesModerate bases are those with a pH of 10 to 11. are those with a pH of 10 to 11.

Acids Water Bases

0 7 14

Try These Questions…Try These Questions…

• What What numbernumber indicates a indicates a moderatemoderate acid? acid? __________

• WhatWhat number number indicates a indicates a moderatemoderate base? base? __________

3-4

10-11

Review…Review…

Protoplasm is comprised of many Protoplasm is comprised of many elementselements..Sulfur, phosphorus, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon Sulfur, phosphorus, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon

and hydrogen are elements that are found in and hydrogen are elements that are found in largelarge quantities in living organisms. quantities in living organisms.

TraceTrace elements are found in only elements are found in only very very smallsmall quantities in living organisms. quantities in living organisms.

Water, inorganic salts, inorganic acids and Water, inorganic salts, inorganic acids and inorganic bases make up a group called inorganic bases make up a group called inorganic compoundsinorganic compounds..

Review…Review…

PolarPolar water molecules form water molecules form hydration hydration shellsshells around ions in solution. around ions in solution.

AcidsAcids dissociate in water to produce a dissociate in water to produce a high high hydrogenhydrogen ion concentration. ion concentration.

Bases Bases dissociate in water to produce a dissociate in water to produce a high high hydroxidehydroxide ion concentration. ion concentration.

The The pH scalepH scale is used to indicate the is used to indicate the strengthstrength of acids and bases. of acids and bases.

Try These Questions:Try These Questions:Select the letter of the correct answer from the list below:Select the letter of the correct answer from the list below:

A. hydrogen D. hydroxideA. hydrogen D. hydroxide

B. salt B. salt E. base E. base

C. pH scaleC. pH scale F. water F. water

1. The solvent ___________ forms hydration shells around ions in solution.

2. An ion always found in dissociated acids is _____________.

3. A dissolved ____________ has an excess of hydroxide ions.

4. The strength of an acid or a base is indicated on the ______________.

Answers:Answers:

1. The solvent ___________ forms hydration shells around ions in solution.

2. An ion always found in dissociated acids is ______________.

3. A dissolved ____________ has an excess of hydroxide ions.

4. The strength of an acid or a base is indicated on the ______________.

water

hydrogen

base

pH scale

Section TwoSection Two

Organic CompoundsOrganic Compounds

Which Element Is It?Which Element Is It?

• There is one element that is most There is one element that is most responsible for life as we know it…responsible for life as we know it…

That element is…

InformationInformation

• Organic compoundsOrganic compounds are the chemicals found in are the chemicals found in living organisms that contain hydrogen to carbon living organisms that contain hydrogen to carbon bonds.bonds.

• These are the major organic compounds that These are the major organic compounds that comprise living organisms:comprise living organisms:

ProteinsProteins CarbohydratesCarbohydrates LipidsLipids Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids

• Some organisms have the ability to manufacture Some organisms have the ability to manufacture organic compounds. Other organisms must organic compounds. Other organisms must obtain organic compounds by eating other living obtain organic compounds by eating other living organisms.organisms.

Autotrophs vs. Autotrophs vs. HeterotrophsHeterotrophs

• AutotrophicAutotrophic organisms produce their own organisms produce their own food (organic compounds). For example, food (organic compounds). For example, algae produces food during the process of algae produces food during the process of photosynthesis.photosynthesis.

• HeterotrophicHeterotrophic organisms, such as fish and organisms, such as fish and people, cannot manufacture their own food. people, cannot manufacture their own food. They consume other living organisms in order They consume other living organisms in order to provide material for energy, growth and to provide material for energy, growth and repair.repair.

• The organic compounds found in food cannot The organic compounds found in food cannot be used in the form that they are eaten.be used in the form that they are eaten.

Food MoleculesFood Molecules

• ProteinProtein

• Carbohydrates (sugars and starches)Carbohydrates (sugars and starches)

• Lipids (fats and oils)Lipids (fats and oils)

• Nucleic AcidNucleic Acid

• Most food molecules are so large that Most food molecules are so large that they cannot be absorbed into the they cannot be absorbed into the heterotroph’s body.heterotroph’s body.

Question:Question:

What must happen to the food What must happen to the food moleculesmolecules

before they can be absorbed?before they can be absorbed?

They must be: _____________They must be: _____________DIGESTED!

Let’s examine how this takes place by conducting an experiment…

The Experiment…The Experiment…

• When you eat, the first digestive substance that food When you eat, the first digestive substance that food comes in contact with is comes in contact with is salivasaliva..

• Let’s examine the action of salivaLet’s examine the action of saliva

on on starchstarch..

• First, let’s mix the flour in distilledFirst, let’s mix the flour in distilled

water and test for the presence ofwater and test for the presence of

starch with an indicator…starch with an indicator…

• The mixture will turn The mixture will turn BLACK!BLACK!

• There is There is no color changeno color change when you combine just the when you combine just the indicator and distilled water – this lets us know that indicator and distilled water – this lets us know that the distilled water did not cause the color change.the distilled water did not cause the color change.

The Experiment…The Experiment…

• Let’s see if Let’s see if salivasaliva affects starch by adding affects starch by adding it to the test tube containing the flour it to the test tube containing the flour water mixture and waiting two minutes.water mixture and waiting two minutes.

• After two minutes, let’s test the mixture After two minutes, let’s test the mixture with the indicator.with the indicator.

• The indicator causes no color change, so The indicator causes no color change, so we know that there is no longer any starch we know that there is no longer any starch in the test tube.in the test tube.


• Further tests prove that the starch (a large Further tests prove that the starch (a large carbohydrate) is carbohydrate) is chemically broken chemically broken downdown to maltose (a smaller to maltose (a smaller carbohydrate).carbohydrate).

• Saliva contains a special substance called Saliva contains a special substance called amylaseamylase..

• Amylase is one of several Amylase is one of several enzymesenzymes that that are found in the body.are found in the body.

• Enzymes are substances that Enzymes are substances that regulateregulate chemical reactions.chemical reactions.

DigestionDigestion

• Let’s see how organisms use enzymes to Let’s see how organisms use enzymes to digestdigest food molecules. food molecules.

• Digestion involves a process called Digestion involves a process called hydrolysishydrolysis..

(Soluble End Products of Digestion)

HydrolysisHydrolysis

• HydrolysisHydrolysis is the breaking down of large is the breaking down of large molecules by chemically combining them molecules by chemically combining them with water.with water.

• WaterWater as well as the as well as the enzymeenzyme is is necessary for necessary for each stepeach step in the process of in the process of hydrolysis.hydrolysis.

(Soluble End Products of Digestion)


• These are the small, soluble molecules These are the small, soluble molecules produced during produced during hydrolysishydrolysis::

MonosaccharidesMonosaccharides from carbohydrates from carbohydrates (starches and sugars)(starches and sugars)

Amino acidsAmino acids from proteins from proteins Fatty acidsFatty acids and and glycerolglycerol from lipids (fats from lipids (fats

and oils)and oils) NucleotidesNucleotides from nucleic acids. from nucleic acids.

• When hydrolysis is complete, the organism When hydrolysis is complete, the organism absorbs and transports these soluble end absorbs and transports these soluble end products to the cells of the body.products to the cells of the body.

Review…Review…

During During hydrolysishydrolysis, molecules that are , molecules that are insoluble (do not dissolve) break down to insoluble (do not dissolve) break down to form molecules that are soluble (do form molecules that are soluble (do dissolve).dissolve).

EnzymesEnzymes regulate hydrolysis. regulate hydrolysis.AutotrophsAutotrophs are organisms that produce are organisms that produce

their own food.their own food.HeterotrophsHeterotrophs are organisms that are organisms that

consume (eat) food in the form of other consume (eat) food in the form of other living organisms.living organisms.

Select The Best Matching Select The Best Matching Choice:Choice:

Answer ColumnAnswer Column::

A.A. DissolvesDissolves

B.B. Breaks down Breaks down moleculesmolecules

C.C. Tests for starchTests for starch

D.D. pH scalepH scale

E.E. Regulates Regulates hydrolysishydrolysis

F.F. Does not dissolveDoes not dissolve

G.G. Eats other Eats other organismsorganisms

H.H. Makes its own foodMakes its own food

Hydrolysis:Correct Answer: B

Enzyme:Correct Answer: E

Autotroph:Correct Answer: H

Heterotroph:Correct Answer: G

Insoluble:Correct Answer: F

Soluble:Correct Answer: A

Soluble End ProductsSoluble End Products

• These are the soluble organic end These are the soluble organic end products absorbed by the cell:products absorbed by the cell:

MonosaccharidesMonosaccharides Amino acidsAmino acids Fatty acidsFatty acids GlycerolGlycerol NucleotidesNucleotides

• Once in the cell, these soluble products Once in the cell, these soluble products can be used to can be used to synthesizesynthesize (make) large (make) large organic compounds needed by the cell.organic compounds needed by the cell.

• Let’s see how this is done…Let’s see how this is done…

Dehydration SynthesisDehydration Synthesis

• This process is called This process is called dehydration synthesisdehydration synthesis..

• Water is Water is removedremoved during the synthesis during the synthesis (building) of the end product.(building) of the end product.

(Soluble End Products of Digestion) (Insoluble End Product)


• These are the dehydration synthesis end These are the dehydration synthesis end products:products:

Carbohydrates from monosaccharidesCarbohydrates from monosaccharides Proteins from amino acidsProteins from amino acids Lipids from fatty acids and glycerolLipids from fatty acids and glycerol Nucleic acids from nucleotides.Nucleic acids from nucleotides.

• The cell uses these end products for The cell uses these end products for growth, repair, energy and heredity.growth, repair, energy and heredity.

• Let’s examine the use of each end Let’s examine the use of each end product…product…

Dehydration Synthesis End Dehydration Synthesis End Products...Products...

Dehydration Dehydration Synthesis End Synthesis End

ProductProduct

Function (Use)Function (Use)

CarbohydrateCarbohydrate Heat and energyHeat and energy

ProteinsProteins Growth, repair, Growth, repair, maintenance and maintenance and energyenergy

LipidsLipids Heat, energy and Heat, energy and insulationinsulation

Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids HeredityHeredity

Questions…Questions…

• Which organic compound provides a link Which organic compound provides a link between generations? _______________between generations? _______________

• Which organic compound allows for the Which organic compound allows for the replacement of damaged tissues? ___________replacement of damaged tissues? ___________

Nucleic Acids

Proteins

Review…Review…

HydrolysisHydrolysis is the step-by-step process in is the step-by-step process in which complex molecules are which complex molecules are broken downbroken down..

WaterWater combinescombines with the complex with the complex molecules during the process of molecules during the process of hydrolysishydrolysis..

Dehydration synthesisDehydration synthesis is the step-by-step is the step-by-step buildingbuilding of complex molecules from simpler of complex molecules from simpler molecules.molecules.

WaterWater is is producedproduced during each step of during each step of dehydration synthesis.dehydration synthesis.

EnzymesEnzymes are required for the processes of are required for the processes of hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis.hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis.


A. hydration D. proteinA. hydration D. protein

B. enzyme B. enzyme E. dehydration E. dehydration

C. hydrolysisC. hydrolysis F. water F. water

1. The process by which large molecules are broken down is ________________.

2. The process by which large molecules are built is _______________ synthesis.

3. Dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis require a(n) ____________ to be present.

4. In hydrolysis, _____________ combines with large molecules to break them down.

1. The process by which large molecules are broken down is ________________.

2. The process by which large molecules are built is _______________ synthesis.

3. Dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis require a(n) ____________ to be present.

4. In hydrolysis, _____________ combines with large molecules to break them down.

Answers:Answers:

hydrolysis

dehydration

enzyme

water

Section ThreeSection Three

CarbohydratesCarbohydrates

A Question…A Question…

• What happens to What happens to hydrolyzed hydrolyzed carbohydratescarbohydrates in the cell? in the cell?

• How are How are carbohydrates carbohydrates used by living used by living organisms for heat and energy?organisms for heat and energy?

Candy Flour

A Question…A Question…

• In order to answer these important questions, In order to answer these important questions, the the structurestructure of of monosaccharidemonosaccharide (simple (simple sugar) molecules must first be examined.sugar) molecules must first be examined.

Candy Flour

MonosaccharidesMonosaccharides

• MonosaccharidesMonosaccharides are the end products of are the end products of carbohydrate hydrolysis.carbohydrate hydrolysis.

• The The arrangementarrangement of atoms in space is shown by of atoms in space is shown by using structural formulas such as these.using structural formulas such as these.

• Any line between symbols (letters) indicates the Any line between symbols (letters) indicates the presence of a chemical bond.presence of a chemical bond.

• The The thickthick lines represent bonds that are close. lines represent bonds that are close.

Glucose, Fructose & Glucose, Fructose & GalactoseGalactose

• All three of these monosaccharides contain the All three of these monosaccharides contain the following elements: Carbon, Hydrogen & Oxygen.following elements: Carbon, Hydrogen & Oxygen.

• All three contain 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms All three contain 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms and 6 oxygen atoms.and 6 oxygen atoms.

• Glucose, fructose & galactose all have the same Glucose, fructose & galactose all have the same molecularmolecular formula: C formula: C66HH1212OO66..

• However, their However, their structuralstructural formulas are entirely formulas are entirely different.different.

Molecular vs. Structural Molecular vs. Structural FormulasFormulas

• Compounds with the same Compounds with the same molecularmolecular formula, but different formula, but different structuralstructural formulas, formulas, are called are called isomersisomers..

• Glucose and fructose are Glucose and fructose are more frequentlymore frequently used by the cell than galactose.used by the cell than galactose.

• Let’s examine them closely to see how they Let’s examine them closely to see how they are used by the cell.are used by the cell.

GlucoseGlucose

• Uses of glucose by the cell:Uses of glucose by the cell: Energy for heat.Energy for heat. Energy for chemical changes.Energy for chemical changes. Stored reserves of energy.Stored reserves of energy.

• Glucose releases Glucose releases heat energyheat energy when its when its chemical bonds are broken.chemical bonds are broken.

• Glucose also provides energy to convert Glucose also provides energy to convert ADP (adenosine diphosphate) into ATP ADP (adenosine diphosphate) into ATP (adenosine triphosphate).(adenosine triphosphate).

• ATPATP is the compound directly responsible is the compound directly responsible for providing the chemical energy for most for providing the chemical energy for most cell activities.cell activities.

Question…Question…

Think about this question:Think about this question:

If the cell does If the cell does notnot require glucose for require glucose for

immediate use it ____________ it.immediate use it ____________ it.stores

Let’s examine what cells do to glucose in order tostore it…

MaltoseMaltose

• Two Two monosaccharidemonosaccharide glucose molecules glucose molecules react to produce a react to produce a disaccharidedisaccharide maltose maltose molecule in the presence of an molecule in the presence of an enzymeenzyme..

• Note: Note: MonoMono means means singlesingle; ; DiDi means means doubledouble, and , and SaccharideSaccharide means means sugarsugar..

Maltose & SucroseMaltose & Sucrose

• Water is produced when the two glucose Water is produced when the two glucose molecules combine to form maltose.molecules combine to form maltose.

• Dehydration synthesisDehydration synthesis is the name of the is the name of the process in which large molecules and water are process in which large molecules and water are produced from small molecules in the presence of produced from small molecules in the presence of an enzyme.an enzyme.

• The The monosaccharidesmonosaccharides glucose and fructose glucose and fructose react in the presence of an react in the presence of an enzymeenzyme to form the to form the disaccharidedisaccharide sucrose. sucrose.

• Additionally, Additionally, waterwater is produced when the glucose is produced when the glucose and fructose molecules combine.and fructose molecules combine.

• SucroseSucrose is the is the table sugartable sugar that you use as food. that you use as food.

Maltose & SucroseMaltose & Sucrose

• Sucrose and maltose undergo further dehydration Sucrose and maltose undergo further dehydration synthesis to form storage compounds.synthesis to form storage compounds.

• Plant and animal cells create long, chain-like Plant and animal cells create long, chain-like compounds called compounds called polysaccharides polysaccharides to store to store sugar for long periods of time. (sugar for long periods of time. (PolyPoly means means manymany.).)

• The polysaccharide starch is also a The polysaccharide starch is also a polymerpolymer..

• PolymersPolymers are long chains of are long chains of identicalidentical subunits. subunits.

Storage CompoundsStorage Compounds

• PlantPlant starch is called starch is called amyloseamylose when it is composed of when it is composed of several hundred glucose subunits in a several hundred glucose subunits in a straightstraight chain. chain.

• Plant Plant starch is called starch is called amylopectinamylopectin when it contains when it contains over a thousand glucose subunits in a over a thousand glucose subunits in a branched branched chain.chain.

• Amylose Amylose and and amylopectinamylopectin are storage compounds. are storage compounds.

• In humans, excess sugar is converted to the storage In humans, excess sugar is converted to the storage compound compound glycogenglycogen..

• GlycogenGlycogen does does notnot have a straight chain. have a straight chain.

CelluloseCellulose

• CelluloseCellulose is another important is another important polysaccharidepolysaccharide..

• The glucose subunits in The glucose subunits in cellulosecellulose have have alternating orientations. That is, every other alternating orientations. That is, every other subunit points in the subunit points in the oppositeopposite direction. direction.

• CelluloseCellulose is the main is the main structuralstructural material in material in plants.plants.

• Wood, paper and cotton are almost entirely Wood, paper and cotton are almost entirely cellulosecellulose..

• CelluloseCellulose is the most plentiful is the most plentiful organicorganic molecule. molecule.

Cellulose



A.A. MonosaccharideMonosaccharide

B.B. Galactose + Galactose + glucoseglucose

C.C. Glucose + fructoseGlucose + fructose

D.D. Contains no Contains no glucoseglucose

E.E. Structural materialStructural material

F.F. Glucose + glucoseGlucose + glucose

G.G. Animal starchAnimal starch

H.H. Plant starchPlant starch

Glucose:Correct Answer: A

Amylopectin:Correct Answer: H

Cellulose:Correct Answer: E

Sucrose:Correct Answer: C

Maltose:Correct Answer: F

Glycogen:Correct Answer: G


• When an organism uses up its When an organism uses up its monosaccharides it must do this:monosaccharides it must do this:

EatEat to receive more monosaccharides (as do to receive more monosaccharides (as do animals, fungus and bacteria).animals, fungus and bacteria).

ProduceProduce more monosaccharides (as do more monosaccharides (as do photosynthetic plants).photosynthetic plants).

ConvertConvert stored polysaccharides to monosaccharides. stored polysaccharides to monosaccharides.

• The process by which organisms The process by which organisms break break downdown large molecules and release water large molecules and release water is called is called hydrolysishydrolysis..

HydrolysisHydrolysis

• StarchStarch is chemically combined with is chemically combined with waterwater in the presence of an in the presence of an enzymeenzyme to to form glucose molecules.form glucose molecules.

• GlucoseGlucose would now be available to the would now be available to the organism for organism for energyenergy..

Molecular FormulasMolecular Formulas

• Examine the Examine the molecularmolecular formulas of these formulas of these carbohydratescarbohydrates……

MonosaccharidesMonosaccharides Glucose Glucose CC66HH1212OO66

Fructose Fructose CC66HH1212OO66

Galactose Galactose CC66HH1212OO66

DisaccharidesDisaccharides Maltose Maltose CC1212HH2222OO1111

Sucrose Sucrose CC1212HH2222OO1111

• What is the ratio of What is the ratio of hydrogenhydrogen to to oxygenoxygen in these in these carbohydrates? 2 to ______carbohydrates? 2 to ______1

• The ratio of two hydrogens to each oxygen is true for The ratio of two hydrogens to each oxygen is true for everyevery carbohydrate. carbohydrate.

Review…Review…

CarbohydratesCarbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen and are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.oxygen.

MonosaccharidesMonosaccharides (glucose, fructose and galactose) are (glucose, fructose and galactose) are single sugars.single sugars.

DisaccharidesDisaccharides (maltose and sucrose) are double (maltose and sucrose) are double sugars.sugars.

CarbohydratesCarbohydrates can be stored as starch for energy can be stored as starch for energy reserves.reserves.

PolysaccharidesPolysaccharides (the starches amylose, amylopectin (the starches amylose, amylopectin and glycogen, as well as cellulose) are composed of and glycogen, as well as cellulose) are composed of many glucose subunits.many glucose subunits.

A A polymerpolymer is a long chain of identical chemical subunits. is a long chain of identical chemical subunits.


A. glucose D. galactoseA. glucose D. galactose

B. polymer B. polymer E. cellulose E. cellulose

C. doubleC. double F. single F. single

1. Glucose is a monosaccharide, which is another name for a ___________ sugar.

2. Maltose is a disaccharide, which is another name for a ____________ sugar.

3. Starch is a polysaccharide that is composed of many ____________ subunits.

4. A ____________ is any long chain chemical with repeated identical subunits.

1. Glucose is a monosaccharide, which is another name for a ___________ sugar.

2. Maltose is a disaccharide, which is another name for a ____________ sugar.

3. Starch is a polysaccharide that is composed of many ____________ subunits.

4. A ____________ is any long chain chemical with repeated identical subunits.

Answers:Answers:

single

double

glucose

polymer

Section FourSection Four

LipidsLipids

Questions…Questions…

• What does an organism do with the What does an organism do with the excessexcess carbohydrates that it makes or carbohydrates that it makes or eats?eats?

• How does an organism How does an organism useuse the lipids (fats the lipids (fats and oils) that it makes or eats?and oils) that it makes or eats?

• In order to answer these very important In order to answer these very important questions, we must examine the questions, we must examine the structurestructure of lipid molecules. of lipid molecules.

LipidsLipids

• The structure of the lipid molecule is more The structure of the lipid molecule is more complex than anything you have seen in complex than anything you have seen in this PowerPoint.this PowerPoint.

LipidsLipids

• When an organism eats a lipid, it is broken When an organism eats a lipid, it is broken down so that it can be down so that it can be absorbedabsorbed..

• HydrolysisHydrolysis is the name of the is the name of the processprocess by by which a complex molecule is broken down which a complex molecule is broken down into simpler parts.into simpler parts.

• Complex molecules must undergo Complex molecules must undergo hydrolysishydrolysis in order to be absorbed. in order to be absorbed.

• Let’s examine how this is accomplished…Let’s examine how this is accomplished…

Lipid HydrolysisLipid Hydrolysis

• Note the three water molecules that are present.Note the three water molecules that are present.

• Glycerol and three fatty acids are produced. They Glycerol and three fatty acids are produced. They can be absorbed into the body or the cell.can be absorbed into the body or the cell.

• If the cell needs energy, it can use these molecules.If the cell needs energy, it can use these molecules.

Fatty Acids & GlycerolFatty Acids & Glycerol

• The glycerol and the fatty acids can be The glycerol and the fatty acids can be used for used for energyenergy or or storedstored for future for future use. These molecules can be use. These molecules can be recombined by the cell to form lipids.recombined by the cell to form lipids.

• Glycerol is an Glycerol is an alcoholalcohol because it because it contains a contains a hydroxylhydroxyl group. group.

• Glycerol contains Glycerol contains threethree hydroxyl hydroxyl groups that will react with the fatty groups that will react with the fatty acids.acids.

• Fatty acid is an Fatty acid is an organic acidorganic acid because because it contains a it contains a carboxyl carboxyl group.group.

• The The dehydration synthesisdehydration synthesis reaction reaction takes place between the takes place between the carboxyl carboxyl and and the the hydroxyl hydroxyl groups.groups.

Fatty Acid

Glycerol

Dehydration SynthesisDehydration Synthesis

• THREETHREE dehydration synthesis reactions dehydration synthesis reactions are necessary to produce are necessary to produce oneone lipid lipid molecule from fatty acids and glycerol.molecule from fatty acids and glycerol.

Carbohydrate vs. Lipid Carbohydrate vs. Lipid MoleculesMolecules

• Lipids are Lipids are insolubleinsoluble in water and are used for in water and are used for long termlong term energy storage. energy storage.

• Glucose is Glucose is solublesoluble in water and can be in water and can be quicklyquickly used for energy.used for energy.

• The ratio of The ratio of hydrogen hydrogen to to oxygenoxygen is much higher is much higher in lipids than in carbohydrates.in lipids than in carbohydrates.

• This affects the This affects the amountamount of energy released when of energy released when an organism uses these compounds.an organism uses these compounds.

• A A lipidlipid yields yields 9 calories/gram9 calories/gram when oxidized when oxidized while a while a carbohydratecarbohydrate (or a protein) yields only (or a protein) yields only 4 4 calories/gramcalories/gram..

• Some organisms can convert lipids to glucose, or Some organisms can convert lipids to glucose, or glucose to lipids, by a complex chemical process.glucose to lipids, by a complex chemical process.


• LipidsLipids are either are either fatsfats (solids at room (solids at room temperature) or temperature) or oilsoils (liquids at room (liquids at room temperature).temperature).

• FatsFats are found in milk, milk products, and fatty are found in milk, milk products, and fatty meats.meats.

• OilsOils are found in fish, vegetables and seeds. are found in fish, vegetables and seeds.• AnimalsAnimals store lipids in store lipids in adiposeadipose cells beneath cells beneath

the skin.the skin.• AdiposeAdipose tissue is used for tissue is used for long-termlong-term energy energy

storage and also provides storage and also provides insulationinsulation..• LipidsLipids can also be used for the production of can also be used for the production of

hormoneshormones, , lubricantslubricants, and , and emulsifiersemulsifiers..

Types of FatTypes of Fat

• The type of The type of fatfat that we consume, as part of our that we consume, as part of our diet, can have very important consequences.diet, can have very important consequences.

• There are two basic types of fat:There are two basic types of fat: Saturated FatSaturated Fat Unsaturated FatUnsaturated Fat

• SaturatedSaturated fats have fats have singlesingle bonds between bonds between the carbon atoms in the molecule.the carbon atoms in the molecule.

• UnsaturatedUnsaturated fats have fats have doubledouble bonds between bonds between some carbon atoms in the molecule.some carbon atoms in the molecule.

Saturated vs. Saturated vs. UnsaturatedUnsaturated

Saturated Fat – notice the single bonds throughout.

Unsaturated Fat – notice the double bonds highlighted in orange.

Saturated CholesterolSaturated Cholesterol

• It is believed that when large quantities of It is believed that when large quantities of saturatedsaturated fat are consumed, the fat are consumed, the production of production of cholesterolcholesterol in the body in the body increases.increases.

• CholesterolCholesterol lines the interior of arteries lines the interior of arteries and can cause and can cause atherosclerosisatherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries).(hardening of the arteries).

• AtherosclerosisAtherosclerosis of the coronary arteries of the coronary arteries can cause heart attacks.can cause heart attacks.

ReviewReview

• Facts about lipids:Facts about lipids:

InsolubleInsoluble in water in waterUsed for Used for stored energystored energy and and insulationinsulationProduce Produce glycerolglycerol and and fatty acidfatty acid during during

hydrolysishydrolysisFormed by the dehydration synthesis of Formed by the dehydration synthesis of

glycerolglycerol and and fatty acidsfatty acidsFatsFats are solid at room temperature are solid at room temperatureOilsOils are liquid at room temperature are liquid at room temperature



A.A. AtherosclerosisAtherosclerosis

B.B. Three hydroxyl Three hydroxyl groupsgroups

C.C. One carboxyl One carboxyl groupgroup

D.D. Three carboxyl Three carboxyl groupsgroups

E.E. Saturated fatSaturated fat

F.F. One hydroxyl One hydroxyl groupgroup

G.G. Unsaturated fatUnsaturated fat

H.H. Lipid in waterLipid in water

Fatty Acid:Correct Answer: C

Glycerol:Correct Answer: B

Insoluble:Correct Answer: H

Single Bonds:Correct Answer: E

Cholesterol:Correct Answer: A

Double Bonds:Correct Answer: G

Section FiveSection Five

Testing Your KnowledgeTesting Your Knowledge

This Is A Test of What You This Is A Test of What You Have Learned…Have Learned…

• There are 10 questions on this test.There are 10 questions on this test.

• Try to correctly answer all of the Try to correctly answer all of the questions.questions.

• If you miss a question, watch the If you miss a question, watch the screen for an explanation of the screen for an explanation of the correct answer.correct answer.



A.A. Very small Very small quantitiesquantities

B.B. Fatty acidFatty acid

C.C. 2:1 ratio (H to O)2:1 ratio (H to O)

D.D. GlycerolGlycerol

E.E. LipidLipid

F.F. Very large Very large quantitiesquantities

G.G. Identical subunitsIdentical subunits

H.H. WaterWater

Trace element:Correct Answer: AA trace element is one that is found in very small quantities. Some trace elements found in living things are iron, copper, magnesium and calcium.

Polar molecule:Correct Answer: HA polar molecule is one that has a separation of positive and negative charges. Water is a polar molecule that surrounds ions in solution because of its polar nature.



A.A. Very small Very small quantitiesquantities

B.B. Fatty acidFatty acid

C.C. 2:1 ratio (H to O)2:1 ratio (H to O)

D.D. GlycerolGlycerol

E.E. LipidLipid

F.F. Very large Very large quantitiesquantities

G.G. Identical subunitsIdentical subunits

H.H. WaterWater

Polymer:Correct Answer: GA polymer is a long chain containing identical subunits. A good example of a polymer is amylose. This plant starch is composed of several hundred glucose subunits in a straight chain.

Carbohydrate:Correct Answer: CAll carbohydrates have a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms. This makes it easy to identify any substance that does not have the 2:1 ratio, as not being a carbohydrate.

Select The Best Choice To Select The Best Choice To Complete Each Analogy:Complete Each Analogy:

The The hydrogenhydrogen ion is to an ion is to an acid acid as the as the __________ ion is to a __________ ion is to a basebase..

A. chlorideA. chloride

B. carboxylB. carboxyl

C. hydroxideC. hydroxide

D. methylD. methyl

E. glycerolE. glycerol

hydroxide

Since an acid placed in a solution releases hydrogen ions the best answer is the hydroxide. It is released by a base when placed in a solution.

Select The Best Choice To Select The Best Choice To Complete Each Analogy:Complete Each Analogy:

PolysaccharidesPolysaccharides are to are to monosaccharidesmonosaccharides as ____________ are to as ____________ are to glycerol and fatty acidsglycerol and fatty acids..

A. polymersA. polymersB. nucleic acidsB. nucleic acidsC. proteinsC. proteinsD. amino acidsD. amino acidsE. lipidsE. lipids

lipids

Since polysaccharides are the end products of monosaccharide dehydration synthesis, the best answer is lipids. They are the end products of glycerol and fatty acid dehydration synthesis.

Fill In The Blanks…Fill In The Blanks…

Starches and sugars are examples of ______________. Another member of this group is cellulose. It is a polymer of the monosaccharide _____________. This simple sugar is a(n) _______________ of galactose and fructose because they have the same molecular formula, but different structural formulas. They, as do all organic compounds, contain the element ___________, the substance most responsible for life as we know it.

carbohydrates

glucoseisomer

carbon

Chemicals of Life IIChemicals of Life II~Water, Carbohydrates and ~Water, Carbohydrates and

Lipids~Lipids~

chemicals of life ii water, carbohydrates and lipids

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