Chemistry 2014 EOY

Salt PreparationSalt Solubility

Group 1 and Ammonium Salts All are soluble under all circumstancesNitrate Salts All are solubleChloride Salts All soluble except AGCL, and PBCL2Sulfate Salts All soluble except AGSO4, PBSO4, BASO4 and

CASO4Hydroxide Salts All Insoluble except BAOH2Oxide Salts All insoluble Lead Salts All insoluble except ethanoate and nitrates

Determine Method of Filtration

Filtration Method1. Warm the acid to be used.2. Add in excess the reactant to ensure all acid is used up.3. Filter the solution to remove the impurities4. Filtrate is the solution.5. Heat to evaporate the filtrate to get hot saturated solution6. Cool immediately to obtain ___ as crystals7. Filter again to obtain crystals as residue8. Dry between sheets of filter papers.

Titration Method1. Pipette 20cm^3 of hydrochloric acid into a conical flask.2. Add 2 to 3 drops of indicator.3. Fill up a burette with alkali.

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Soluble Salt to

be producedInsoluble Salt to

be produced

Group 1 or

Ammonium –

Titration

Others –

Reactions with

acids

Precipitation

Chemistry 2014 EOY

4. Titrate, drop by drop the alkali into the conical flask. Swirl solution.5. When a colour change is observed, stop titration and note volume of alkali used.6. Repeat titration without indicator with the volume obtained previously.7. Heat solution until saturation8. Allow to cool to obtain___ as crystals.9. Filter to obtain crystals as residue.10. Dry between sheets of filter paper.

Precipitation Method1. Add two salts together, stir, filter to get ppt as residue, wash with deionized water, dry between

sheets of filter paper.

Atomic StructureModel of an Atom

Plum’s understanding of the atom was that the electrons were equally distributed among the positive protons. However, this was not correct

until Rutherford

Rutherford discovered that some particles got deflected slightly, some passed straight through while some bounced back altogether.

Protons have a charge of +1 , have a relative mass of 1, Neutrons have a charge of 0, have a relative mass of 1, electrons have a charge of -1, have a lower mass of 0.0005

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Chemistry 2014 EOY

The top numbering is the atomic number which comprises protons and neutrons combined. The bottom number is only the atomic mass and comprises only the protons.

Remember that things have same total number of electrons are isoelectronic and isotopes are atoms of same element having different atomic numbers, different number of neutrons. They have the same chemical properties but different physical

properties!

Shells, Subshells, Orbitals, Electrons1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d

When there are no electrons in 3d, 4s automatically fall in front of 3d.

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 5sWhen there are electrons in 3d, it remains below 4s.

Electron in box diagram must be drawn with electrons opposite in each full box, and free orbitals must be occupied singly before in pairs.

Sometimes, if it takes one electron for 3d to become either half or fully filled, 4S will donate that electron.

Sigma orbitals are spherical while pi

Ionization Energy1st Ionization Energy: Ca=Ca+ + e-

2nd Ionization Energy: Ca+=Ca2+ + e- (Take up more energy than the first one)

Shielding Effect Outermost electron shielded by the repelling effect of the inner electrons. Attraction between nucleus decreases.

Atomic Size As atomic size increases, attraction decreases and less energy is required to remove electron.

This can be used to determine the number of shells an element has and the number of electrons in that shell. For example for Sodium, it has one valence electron, you see a huge jump in ionization energy from first to second row, shows only one electron in valence

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3d 4S

Chemistry 2014 EOY

shell.

Chemical BondingMetallic BondingDefined as the electrostatic force of attraction between sea of delocalized electrons and positively charged cations in giant metallic lattice.

Strength depends on the charge. For example, Sodium has a charge of +1, while Calcium has a charge of +2, therefore Sodium chloride has half the boiling point of calcium chloride due to a stronger electrostatic force of attraction.

High melting/Boiling Point -Large amount of energy needed to overcome strong metallic bonds in giant metallic lattice.-Bond strength depends on the number of valence electrons involved in forming the bond.

Good electrical conductivity -Has sea of delocalized electrons to act as mobile charge carriers

Malleable and Ductile The atoms can slide over another without disrupting the bond.

Ionic BondingDefined as the electrostatic force of attraction between positively charged cations and negatively charged anions. (METAL AND NON-METAL)

High Boiling and Melting Points -Large amount of energy needed to break strong electrostatic force of attraction between cations and anions in the Giant Ionic Lattice

Soluble in Water but not in organic solvent -Hydration energy larger than EFAConduct electricity in liquid or molten state -Ions are free to move around and are not held

tightly togetherStrength Depends on the charge and size of ions -Charge takes precedence as larger charge means

greater EFA, smaller ion means higher charge density.

Covalent BondingDefined as bond formed by sharing of electrons. Dot and Cross.

Single Covalent Bond 1 sigma bondDouble Covalent Bond 1 sigma, 1 pi, with pi as increment for future

Bond PolarityA polar bond is due to unequal sharing of electrons and formed between atoms of differing electronegativity. Remember that this is the notation to denote polar bonds. The more electronegative one should have the partial negative symbol.

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Chemistry 2014 EOY

Remember that polar bonds can cancel out, in the case of linear and tetrahedral VSEPR shapes.

Intermolecular ForcesHydrogen Bonding, Van Der Waals

Permanent Dipole Interaction TWO POLAR MOLECULESPermanent Dipole Induced Dipole interaction One Polar induce another non-polarInduced Dipole Interaction Both Non-Polar, only instantaneous when electron

cloud change shape momentarily

Hydrogen Bonds are only formed between a hydrogen bonded to FON and the lone pair of a

neighbouring FON. The bond must be depicted like this, with dotted lines! Lone pair must be drawn!

Water has the strongest hydrogen bond as compared to Hydrogen Fluoride or Ammonia as it can form 200 hydrogen bonds, lone pair limiting bond for ammonia, number of hydrogen atoms limiting HF. HF has a stronger hydrogen bond than NH3 as HF bond is more polar than NH.

Acids, bases and saltsStrong Acids/Alkalis : Dissociate/Ionize completely in water to produce hydrogen/hydroxide ions.

Ph = -log10 (H+ Conc)

IndicatorsUniversal Indicator test

Red Orange Green Blue Violet

MethyL Orange

Red Orange Yellow

Bromothymol Blue

Yellow Green Blue

Phenolphthalein

Colourless Colourless Pink

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Chemistry 2014 EOY

All salts with colourless anions White when solid, colourless when aqueousIron 2 Chloride, Sulfate, Nitrate GreenIron 3 Chloride, Sulfate, Nitrate Reddish Brown when solid, yellow when aqueousCopper 2 Chloride, Nitrate, Sulfate BlueCopper 2 Carbonate GreenCopper 2 Oxide and Iron 2 Oxide BlackZinc Oxide Yellow when hot, White when coolLead 2 Iodide Bright Yellow

Acid / Alkali ReactionsAcid Base Reaction Produce Water and saltAcid Metal Produce Hydrogen Gas and saltAcid Carbonate Reaction Produce salt, CO2, H2OCalcium Lead and insoluble compounds Form coating and prevent further reactionAlkali with Ammonium Salts Salt, Ammonia Gas, H2O

Oxides

Across the Period

Some examples of Basic Oxides: Sodium, Potassium, Magnesium etc

Some examples of Amphoteric Oxides: Zinc Oxide, Lead Oxide, Aluminum Oxide

Some examples of Neutral Oxides: Carbon Monoxide, Nitric Oxide, H2O

Qualitative analysisTesting for Gases

Hydrogen Gas Colourless, Odourless Gas extinguishes lighted splint with a pop sound.

Oxygen Gas Colourless, Odourless Gas rekindles glowing splint Ammonia Gas Turns Red Litmus Paper Blue, Pungent and

ColourlessChlorine Greenish Yellowish gas that turns blue litmus red

and bleaches itNitrogen Dioxide Brown Gas with pungent smell. Turn Blue litmus

red, and form colourless solution with waterSulfur Dioxide Acidified Potassium Manganate VII, decolorize from

purple to colourlessWater Cobalt 2 Chloride Paper turn from blue to pinkCO2 Colourless and Odourless gas forms white

precipitate in Calcium Hydroxide

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Basic Amphoteric Neutral Acidic

Chemistry 2014 EOY

Action of heat on SaltsCarbonate Salts Produce Oxide and CO2Nitrate Salts Produce Oxide, O2 and NO2Heat Ammonia Salts Sublime, produce ammonia gas and a _____

Test of Cations SpecialAluminium Dissolve in Excess of NAOHZinc Dissolve in excess of BOTHLead 2 Dissolved in excess of NAOHCopper 2 Dissolve in excess of ammonia to give dark blue

*Test for NH4+ through reacting with NAOH, warm, and ammonia gas would be released.

Anion TestTest for Chloride -Add Barium Nitrate. White precipitate that is

Barium Chloride would form.Test for Sulfate -Add Silver Nitrate. White precipitate that Is Silver

Sulfate would form.Test for Iodide -Add Lead 2 Nitrate. Bright yellow ppt would be

formed.Test for Carbonate -Add nitric acid. Effervescence of ….Test for Nitrate -Add aluminum foil, NAOH and warm. Colourless

and pungent gas which is ammonia would be formed.

Chemical calculationCalculate Relative mass -Combine percentages of isotopesNo of Mol No of Mol=No of particles / 6 x 10^23Mol No of Mol=Mass/MMMol No of Mol=Volume of Gas/24Mol No of Mol=Volume x Concentration

Serial Dilution M1V1=M2V2 (M=CONC)

This is how you find the empirical formula. After which if they provide Mr, then you can use that to find the Molecular formula.

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Chemistry 2014 EOY

Periodic TableGroup 0 Noble Gases

Atomic Radius -Increases Down the Group. Due to more shells.Melting and Boiling Point -Increases down the group. As atomic size

increases, atoms become more polarizable. Thus strength of van der Waal forces increase…

Density Low Densities. Increases down the group as increase in mass is larger than increase in volume.

Solubility InsolubleConduct Electricity Does NotReactive No

Group 1 Alkali MetalsSoft, Grey, Shiny YesGood Conductor of heat, electricity YesDensity is low, increases down the group Increase in mass larger than increase in volume.Atomic Radius Increase down the group. –More ShellsMelting and Boiling Points Decrease down the group as there is higher

shielding effect due to increasing atomic size, and decrease in effective nuclear charge, which weakens EFA, less energy required.

Reactivity Increase down the group. More size, shielding effect increase, easier to lose/displace an electron to achieve octet.

Reaction with Water Explosive, Produce hydroxide salt and h2 gas.Reaction with Oxygen Produce Oxide Salt, dissolve in water to form

hydroxideReaction with Halogen like Chlorine/Bromine Halogen Salt

Group 7 Halogen

Fluorine Chlorine Bromine IodinePale Yellow gas Greenish-Yellowish Gas Reddish-Brown Liquid Purplish-Black Solid

Atomic Size Increase Down the group due to more shells.Density Density increases down the group as increase in

mass bigger than increase in volume.Melting and Boiling Points -Increase down the group as larger atomic size

means more polarizable, causing strength of VDW to increase…

Reactivity Decrease down the group. Atomic Size increase, more shielding effect, decrease in effective nuclear charge and EFA, harder for nucleus to attract electrons to complete octet.

Reactivity Decrease across group 1, 2, 3 metals Increases for Group 5-7 elements

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Chemistry 2014 EOY

Its much harder to lose 2-3 electrons as compared to 1, and it is much easier to gain one electron rather than 2/3

Displacement Reaction More reactive halogen can displace less reactive ones. Since reactivity decrease down the group, top elements can displace bottom elements.

Reaction with Iron Halogens can react with Iron to produce iron salt

Period TrendsAtomic Size Decreases across Period because proton number

increases and EFA increases, therefore electrons are held closer to nucleus.

Electronegativity Increases across period. Same shielding effect as same number of shells, But proton number increase, EFA increase, atomic radius decrease. Ability to attract electrons increases.

Metallic Properties Going across period, become less and less metallic.Solid to Gas …Electrical Conductivity Worse and WorseMelting Points Increases first, before decreasing. As for Metals,

they have more electrons going across period, more strength, more energy needed. Spike at Sulfur and phosphorus due to larger molecular size as S8, P4…

Transition MetalsForm Coloured Ions or Compounds ColouredExist in various oxidation states More than 1Act as catalystsForm complex ions Ammonia reaction with excess Copper ion

Air and the AtmosphereComposition of Air

Oxygen 21% to 16%Nitrogen 78%CO2 0.04% TO 4%Water Vapour 0-5%Noble Gases Rest

Common Pollutants and Combatant Methods

Carbon Monoxide Car Exhaust. Incomplete Combustion of petrol.

-Bind with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin which reduces blood’s oxygen carrying capacity. –Breathing Difficulties

Methane Decomposition of Plant/Animal Matters in absence of oxygen.

-30X more potent that CO2 as greenhouse gas

Nitrogen Dioxide Combustion engines/lightning when temperature is high.

N^2 + O^2=2NO2NO+O2=2NO2

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Chemistry 2014 EOY

Photochemical Smog. Irritate lung.Acid Rain.

Sulfur Dioxide Factory Emissions. Combustion of carbon based fuel.

Acid Rain

Photochemical Smog Combination of Nitrogen Dioxide and unburnt hydrocarbon in presence of sunlight to form ground level ozone.

Breathing Difficulty.

NO2+energy=NO+OO+O2=O3NO+O3=NO2+O2

Acid Rain Sulfur Dioxide/Nitrogen Dioxide SO2+H2O=H2SO32H2SO3+O2=2H2SO4

NO2+H2O=HNO2+HNO32HNO2=O2=2HNO3

CO2+H2O=H2CO3 (Slightly below 7 ph)

-Corrodes bridges, statues-Pollutes waterways, kills fishes, destroy forest.-Use catalytic converter, use fuel with less sulfur

Depletion of Ozone by CFC CFC UV radiation split oxygen molecules into atoms. Combine with oxygen to form ozone. UV Split Ozone back into oxygen and oxygen atom, being absorbed in the process. However CFC disrupt this process.

Cl. + O3=CIO+O2CIO+O3=Cl. + 2O2

Global Warming Greenhouse Gases -Greenhouse Gases trap too much heat. Methane, Nitrogen Dioxide etc.

Cause Sea level rise and glacier to melt, Flooding may occur. Use renewable energy.

Catalytic Converter 2NO+CO=2CO2+N2Hydrocarbon oxidized into CO2 and H2O.

Flue Gas Desulfurization Remove sulfur dioxide CACO3+SO2=CASO3+CO22CASO3+O2=2CASO4

Also can use Calcium Oxide

Separation TechniquesAs this is too easy, it will just be spelled out below.

FiltrationCrystallizationChromatographySimple DistillationFractional Distillation

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Chemistry 2014 EOY

Separating FunnelEvaporation (Heat to dryness)Sublimation (For Ammonium and Iodine Salts)

Redox ReactionsLoss or Gain Of Oxygen -If gain oxygen, means oxidized, if lost oxygen,

means reduced. E.G (CUO - CU)Loss or Gain of Hydrogen -If gain Hydrogen, means reduced, if lost hydrogen

means oxidized.Transfer of electrons. -Oxidation is loss of electrons. Electron goes to the

reduced substance which gains the electrons lost.

Al+3e = Al3+ (Reduced)Change in Oxidation State -Increase in Oxidation state means oxidized,

decrease means reduction.

Oxidation state of all atoms in elemental state e.g(Cl2) is 0, and all metals’ oxidation state mostly follow their charges. Must be written as +() and not ()+

Disproportionate Reaction -This happens when a substance is both oxidized and reduced at the same time.

Oxidising Agents (Gets reduced itself)ChlorineHydrogen Peroxide (Disproportionate)Acidified Potassium Manganate VIIAcidified Potassium Dichromate VI

Reducing Agents (Gets oxidised itself)Carbon MonoxideCarbonMetals E.g MagnesiumPotassium Iodide

Test for an Oxidising Agent (Use Reducing Agent)Potassium Iodide (Reducing Agent) Turns Brown due to I2 formation. (Iodine)Starch-Iodide Paper Turns from White to Blue. Iodine reacts with starch

to turn blue.

Test for an Reducing Agent (Use Oxidising Agent)Acidified Potassium Manganate VII Decolourise from purple to colourlessAcidified Potassium Dichromate VI Turn from orange to green.

Electrolysis

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Molten CompoundsMolten compounds do not contain water. Also, this method works only for Binary ionic compounds. Ternary compounds like NANO3 will not work. Anode is positive, Cathode is Negative, positive element gets attracted to cathode, negative gets attracted to Anode. They all form products as H2O is not present.

Active/Inert ElectrodesActive Electrodes Almost all electrodes will take part in chemical

reactions. For example, copper, silver etc. However, less reactive material is displaced and discharged. Also, electrodes can be discharged only if they are on the Anode end.

Inert Electrode Only platinum and graphite electrodes are inert. These electrodes never take part.

Aqueous SolutionsConcentrated Salt If Chlorine ions is present in concentrated amounts,

although it is of a higher reactivity than OH-, it will still be selectively discharged.

Dilute Salt Lower reactivity means higher tendency to be discharged. Hydrogen gas discharged at Cathode, Oxygen gas at Anode.

2H+ + 2e- =H24OH-=2O2+2H2O+4e-

Uses of ElectrolysisExtraction of Metals Very reactive metals must be extracted from their ores by

electrolysis. E.G SODIUM FROM MOLTEN SODIUM CHLORIDE (Must be Molten!)

Oxygen gas released at the other end, react with carbon electron to form CO2, therefore electrode would slowly corrode.

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Purification of Metals Must use reactive electrodes and use metal of cation. Impure metal used as anode, pure metal used as cathode.

1. Impure copper will get discharged into the solution, Therefore anode becomes thinner. Impurities will collect in the tank.

2. Pure copper gets discharged onto the cathode, and cathode becomes thicker.

3. In Summary, PURE COPPER IS TRANSFERRED FROM ANODE TO CATHODE.

NO LOSS OF METAL IN PURIFICATION PROCESS!

Electroplating -Depositing a layer of metal on another substance. E.G Aluminium Oxide coating to prevent aluminium from rusting. -Item to be electroplated must be at cathode.-Material to electroplate must be at anode. The electrolyte must also contain ions of plating metal.

Energy ChangeExothermic or EndothermicExothermic reactions give out heat, while Endothermic reactions absorb heat.

Dissolution of ammonium chloride/nitratePhotosynthesisReaction of ammonium chloride with barium hydroxideThermal Decomposition of carbonate and nitrate saltsAcid and Carbonate reaction.THESE ARE ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS.

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Energy Level Diagram

Endothermic Reaction (Heat is absorbed)

Energy Profile Diagram

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Chemistry 2014 EOY

Bond Breaking and Bond Forming-Bond breaking always requires energy, bond forming gives out energy. In exothermic reactions, bond forming takes up more energy than breaking and the opposite for endothermic reactions.

Heat of FormationPrecipitation Reaction 1 mol of productNeutralisation 1 mol of ProductCombustion 1 mol of Reactant

Temperature and EA

At a higher temperature, molecules have higher kinetic energy and this increases the rate of effective collisions. Therefore, higher percentage of particles have sufficient energy and correct orientation to overcome the activation energy of the reaction, increasing rate of reaction and formation of products.

Collision Theory States that for product to be formed:

1. Need to have correct orientation2. Need to overcome EA

Speed Of ReactionRate of Reaction is inversely proportional to the time taken!

Ways to MeasureVolume of gas evolved (Syringe)Formation of Precipitate although there is no way to measure mass/timeChange in mass (gas evolved)Colour ChangesTemperature ChangesChange in concentrationPH Change

Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction

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Chemistry 2014 EOY

Total Surface Area -Smaller particle size means total surface area becomes larger.-Frequency of collision between particles on surface becomes higher.-Increases frequency of effective collision BETWEEN ____ AND ______.Higher % of particles have enough energy to overcome EA.Rate of reaction increases.

Concentration -Larger the concentration, the more particles PER UNIT VOLUME.-Increases the frequency of effective collisions between ___ and ______.- Higher % of particles have enough energy to overcome EA.Rate of reaction increases.

Temperature -Higher the temperature, molecules have more kinetic energy, higher frequency of effective collision between ___ and ___.Higher % of particles have enough energy to overcome EA.Rate of reaction increases.

Pressure -More pressure, means less volume or more particles in same volume. Higher % of particles have enough energy to overcome EA.Rate of reaction increases.

Catalyst Decreases activation energy by providing alternative path for reaction to take place.

Properties of Catalyst:1. Does not affect Heat Enthalpy2. Remains unchanged at end of reaction3. Does not alter nature of products

formed4. Increases rate of reaction.5. Small amount needed.6. Specific7. Mostly Transition elements8. Enzymes

Example Catalysts:1. Vanadium V Oxide catalyses

production of sulfuric acid2. Hydrogen peroxide decomposition is

catalyzed by Manganese oxide3. Platinum catalyzes production of nitric

acid, catalytic converters.4. Iron catalyzes Haber process!

Reaction Graphs

Higher temperature, higher conc, small particle size will increase the initial rate of reaction, but does not alter the amount of products formed.

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Chemistry 2014 EOY

Amount of products formed must be calculated through the number of mol. E.G If Mol is double, then means twice the amount of products formed.

As for sulfuric acid, it is dibasic as compared to HCL, so concentration doubles, increasing both rate of reaction and if volume of acid is the same, double the amount of products formed as well.

Reversible ReactionLe Chatelier’s Principle

Increasing Concentration of Reactants Position of equilibrium will move to the right, favouring the forward reaction that uses A and B as substrate to produce more products and to counteract the increase in concentration of the reactants. so that the concentration of A and B decreases again - by reacting it with B and turning it into C + D.

Increasing Pressure Note that this will only affect reactions with all gas molecules.

According to Le Chatelier, the position of equilibrium will move in such a way as to counteract the change. That means that the position of equilibrium will move so that the pressure is reduced again.

Pressure is caused by gas molecules hitting the sides of their container. The more molecules you have in the container, the higher the pressure will be. The system can reduce the pressure by reacting in such a way as to produce fewer molecules.

In this case, there are 2 molecules on the left-hand side of the equation, and 2 on the right. In this case, pressure doesn't affect.

However, in a reaction with varying reactants and products, Increasing the pressure on a gas reaction shifts the position of equilibrium towards the side with fewer molecules, therefore decreasing the pressure.

Increasing the temperature This depends on whether the forward or backward reaction is exothermic. Usually you will write the reaction like this: A+B = C+D+Heat

Therefore if you increase the temperature, it would shift the equilibrium to the left, favoring the endothermic backward reaction which absorbs the additional energy to form more reactants.

AlkaneYJD 2014

Chemistry 2014 EOY

SATURATED (As they contain only single C-C bonds, which means more unstable and easier to break down)

General Formula of Alkanes:CnH2n+2

Naming of Alkanes

This is how you name straight chain Alkanes. As for branched Alkanes, remember to add a methyl/ethyl/propyl/butyl in front with numbers to denote the location of the branched carbon. Remember to add “DI” if one carbon has 2 branched carbons.

Physical Properties of AlkanesMelting/Boiling Points -Alkanes are covalent compounds held by weak

VDW. But there is a gradual increase as the molecules become larger. Number of electrons and surface area increases as size increases, stronger VDW,

Density Alkanes less dense than water. Float on water. Increase with increasing mass.

Solubility Not soluble in water, only in organic solvent.Electrical Conductivity Do not conduct.Flammability. Less flammable as alkane size increases as carbon

increases.Viscosity More viscous as size increase, VDW stronger,

harder for liquid to flow.

Chemical Properties of AlkanesCombustion -Complete Combustion produces CO2 and H2O.

-Incomplete Combustion produces CO and H2O. / just carbon

Halogenation Reaction with a halogen. Need UV light!

CH4+CL2=HCL+CH3CL (Chloromethane)

AlkeneUnsaturated due to C=C double bonds.

General Formula: CnH2n

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Naming of AlkenesSame way as Alkanes for the branches, but alkenes require you to specify where the double bond is located. Label such that the double bond gets the smallest number possible. If double bond is not on 1 carbon, But-2-ene, Prop-2-ene.

Chemical Properties of AlkenesCombustion -Complete Combustion produces CO2 and H2O.

-Incomplete Combustion produces CO and H2O. / just carbon

Burn with sootier flames as compared to Alkanes due to more carbon.

Halogenation Reaction with a halogen. NO Need UV light!

Used to test for Unsaturation.-Using aqueous bromine, an alkene presence would turn bromine from orange to colourless, whereas an alkane would need energy to kick start the reaction.

Hydrogenation -Adding hydrogen would turn Alkenes into alkanes. -Require Nickel/Platinium as catalyst.Break double bond, and form more hydrogen.

Addition of Water -Converts Alkenes into alcohol.-Needs concentrated phosphoric acid at 300 degree and 60atm pressure.

Addition of Hydrogen Halide E.G Ethene reacts with HCL to form chloroethane. Note that CL must put in the middle as that is the MASTER product!

Alkenes have same physical properties as Alkanes.

CrackingCracking converts heavy oil such as petroleum into smaller constituents, such that they are more useful. It is unable to predict the products formed. Hydrogen can also be produced as a byproduct to be used in fuel cell.

AlcoholAre Neutral, Have a functional Group of -O-H

Naming of alcohol is the same as alkenes, just that the ENE becomes an OL. Number of the carbon chair branched with the OL is also needed, and branched carbons must be included in front as well.

Production of AlcoholAddition of water to Alkenes -Addition reaction with phosphoric acid catalyst at

300 degree and 60atm pressure. Fermentation of Glucose Glucose can be fermented to produce ethanol and

CO2. Note that NO water is produced! Catalyst is yeast enzyme zymase at 20 degrees and without oxygen.

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Physical PropertiesLiquid at room temperature. Soluble because they form hydrogen bond!!! Solubility decrease as carbon increase.Colourless, have sharp smell, miscible, low boiling point but volatile!

Chemical PropertiesCombustion Complete produces CO2 and H2O.

Doesn't have incomplete combustion!!! Oxidation Alcohols can be oxidized to form carboxylic acid.

Oxidation agents can be Acidified Potassium Dichromate VI or Manganate VII./sulfuric acid

EQN: Alcohol + 2[O] = CARBOXYLIC ACID + WATER

Dehydration Alcohols can be converted back into alkenes by the removal of water molecules through catalysts conc sulfuric acid or hot porcelain. (Removal of water from alcohol and formation of double bond)

Carboxylic AcidAcidic, Have General Formula of Cn-1H2n-1CO2H, Functional Group is COOH

Naming is the same as the rest, just drop the end and replace with oic acid. No numbering needed.

Physical PropertiesBoiling Points higher than alkanes with same no. of carbon due to hydrogen bonds.. Boiling point increase with more carbon atoms.4 carbon or fewer very soluble in water due to hydrogen bond.Solubility decreases with increasing carbon atoms.

Chemical PropertiesAcidic Since it is acidic, it has the same properties that

any acid has, react with metals, react with bases and react with carbonates.

Reaction with Alcohols React with alcohol to produce ester and WATER. This is done in reflux with the presence of conc. Sulfuric acid and at 60 degrees. Alcohol functional group combines with one H from carboxylic acid to form water as a by product. Naming of ester comes from alcohol first, followed by the carboxylic acid.

E.G Ethanol+Butanoic acid = Ethyl Butanoate

This is a reverscible reaction!

Learn what is reflux!

Ester are sweet, used as flavourings, cosmestics, soaps, detergents, solvent for organic compounds.

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PolymerizationIs a macromolecule made up of multiple repeating monomers.

Addition PolymerizationRequirements: NEED C=C Double Bond.

Break the double bond in the monomer and copy and paste. When naming, just add the prefix poly in front of the monomer’s name.

Condensation PolymerizationMonomers join together to form a polymer with the byproduct of water/HCL/NH2.

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Chemistry 2014 EOY

You can see that water is given out once the monomers join up to form a polymer due to the presence of the OH functional groups.

As we can see again, this is how NYLON is formed. Water is also give out as a by-product and the linkage is known as an amide. Nylon is therefore referred to as a polyamide. Natural polyamides include proteins.

Nylon is always named with 2 numbers. E.G Nylon 6,6. The first number refers to the number of carbons in the carboxylic group, while the second number refers to the number of carbon in the amine group.

Monomers with 1 functional group is needed to stop polymerization and control length of polymer chains.

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