chem 101 week 2
TRANSCRIPT
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CHEM 101
PPts from week of1/25/20121/27/2012
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Significant FiguresSignificant Figures
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Significant Digits
• Any non-zero digit• A zero between two nonzero digits • Zeroes to the right of a nonzero digit and to
the right of the decimal point
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461
All nonzero numbers are significant.
Significant Figures
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461
All nonzero numbers are significant.
Significant Figures
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461
All nonzero numbers are significant.
Significant Figures
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461
3 Significant Figures
All nonzero numbers are significant.
Significant Figures
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A zero is significant when it is between nonzero digits.
5 Significant Figures
600.39
Significant Figures
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3 Significant Figures
30.9
A zero is significant when it is between nonzero digits.
Significant Figures
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A zero is significant at the end of a number that includes a decimal point.
5 Significant Figures
000.55
Significant Figures
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A zero is significant at the end of a number that includes a decimal point.
5 Significant Figures
0391.2
Significant Figures
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Non-Significant Digits
• Zeroes to the left of the leftmost nonzero digit• Zeroes to the left of an implied decimal point
– 567 has an implied decimal point– 450 has an implied decimal point we do not know
if the zero is significant therefore it is non-significant
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A zero is not significant when it is before the first nonzero digit.
1 Significant Figure
600.0
Significant Figures
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A zero is not significant when it is before the first nonzero digit.
3 Significant Figures
907.0
Significant Figures
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A zero is not significant when it is at the end of a number without a decimal point.
1 Significant Figure
00005
Significant Figures
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A zero is not significant when it is at the end of a number without a decimal point.
4 Significant Figures
01786
Significant Figures
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12 inches = 1 foot100 centimeters = 1 meter
• Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant figures.
• Exact numbers occur in simple counting operations
Exact Numbers
• Defined numbers are exact.
12345
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Rounding Off NumbersRounding Off Numbers
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• Often when calculations are performed on a calculator extra digits are present in the results.
• It is necessary to drop these extra digits so as to express the answer to the correct number of significant figures.
• When digits are dropped, the value of the last digit retained is determined by a process known as rounding off numbers.
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80.873
Rule 1. When the first digit after those you want to retain is 4 or less, that digit and all others to its right are dropped. The last digit retained is not changed.
4 or less
Rules for Rounding Off
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1.875377
Rule 1. When the first digit after those you want to retain is 4 or less, that digit and all others to its right are dropped. The last digit retained is not changed.
4 or less
Rounding Off Numbers
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5 or greater
5.459672
Rule 2. When the first digit after those you want to retain is 5 or greater, that digit and all others to its right are dropped. The last digit retained is increased by 1.
drop these figuresincrease by 1
6
Rounding Off Numbers
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Significant Figures in Calculations
Significant Figures in Calculations
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The results of a calculation based on measurements cannot be more precise than the least precise measurement.
It is important to remember that:
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Multiplication or DivisionMultiplication or Division
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• In multiplication or division, the answer must contain the same number of significant figures as in the measurement that has the least number of significant figures.
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(190.6)(2.3) = 438.38
438.38
Answer given by calculator.
2.3 has two significant figures.
190.6 has four significant figures.
The answer should have two significant figures because 2.3 is the number with the fewest significant figures.
Drop these three digits.Round off this digit to
four.
The correct answer is 440 or 4.4 x 102
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Addition or SubtractionAddition or Subtraction
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The results of an addition or a subtraction must be expressed to the same precision as the least precise measurement.
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The result must be rounded to the same number of decimal places as the value with the fewest decimal places.
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1.039 - 1.020Calculate
1.0391.039 - 1.020
= 0.0182868141.039
Answer given by calculator.
1.039 - 1.020 = 0.019
0.019 = 0.018286814
1.039
The answer should have two significant figures because 0.019 is the number with the fewest significant figures.
2 80.018 6814
Two significant figures.
Drop these 6 digits.
0.018286814
Correct answer.
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Units of Measurement
• Recall that the unit part of a measurement tells us the scale or standard used to represent the results of a measurement
• The two most widely used systems of measurement are the English System and the Metric System
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Measurement of mass, length and volume
• In the United States, we use a fairly awkward system of measurement for most things - the English system
• Scientists use the metric or SI system of units for the measurement of physical quantities
• This system uses standard units based on very precisely known properties of matter and light
• Metric Prefixes are used to change the size of the fundamental or standard units.
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The Metric SystemThe Metric System
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The Metric or International System (SI, Systeme International)
• Is a decimal system of units.
• It is built around standard units.
• It uses prefixes representing powers of 10 to express quantities that are larger or smaller than the standard units.
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International System’s Standard Units of Measurement
Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg Temperature Kelvin K
Time second sAmount of substance mole mol
Electric Current ampere A
Luminous Intensity candela cd
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Because these fundamental units are not always convenient size, the SI System uses metric prefixes to change the size of the unit
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Common Prefixes and Numerical Values for SI Units Power of 10
Prefix Symbol Numerical Value Equivalent
giga G 1,000,000,000 109
mega M 1,000,000 106
kilo k 1,000 103
hecto h 100 102
deca da 10 101
— — 1 100
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Prefixes and Numerical Values for SI Units
deci d 0.1 10-1
centi c 0.01 10-2
milli m 0.001 10-3
micro 0.000001 10-6
nano n 0.000000001 10-9
pico p 0.000000000001 10-12
femto f 0.00000000000001 10-15
Power of 10Prefix Symbol Numerical Value Equivalent
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Measurement of LengthMeasurement of Length
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The standard unit of length in the SI system is the meter. 1 meter is the distance that light travels in a vacuum during of a second.
1299,792,458
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The Meter
• 1 meter = 39.37 inches
• 1 meter is a little longer than a yard
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Metric Units of Length Exponential
Unit Abbreviation Metric Equivalent Equivalent
kilometer km 1,000 m 103 m
meter m 1 m 100 m
decimeter dm 0.1 m 10-1 m
centimeter cm 0.01 m 10-2 m
millimeter mm 0.001 m 10-3 m
micrometer m 0.000001 m 10-6 m
nanometer nm 0.000000001 m 10-9 m
angstrom Å 0.0000000001 m 10-10 m
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Converting Between Units
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Converting Between Units
• The standard method to convert between two different units is the factor-label or dimensional analysis method
• Dimensional analysis converts a measurement in one unit to another by the use of a conversion factor
• Conversion factors are developed from relationships between two units
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Dimensional Analysis
• Dimensional analysis converts one unit to another by using conversion factors.
• The conversion factor must accomplish two things: 1. It must cancel unit1 2. It must introduce unit2
unit1 x conversion factor = unit2
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Conversion factors
• Unit factors - factors that relate a quantity in a certain unit to one of another unit e.g. 103 m = 1 km
• The conversion factor is created by dividing both sides by the same quantity
103 m = 1 = 1 km103 m 103m or
103 m = 1 km = 1 1km 1 km Each unit factor gives 2 possible conversion
factors.
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Dimensional analysis
• Multiplying a quantity in one unit by an appropriate conversion factor converts the number into the new unit
• Note that conversion factors are exact relationships• Exact relationships have unlimited precision, so they can be
ignored for the purposes of deciding the number of significant digits in a calculation
km1068.4m10
km1m468.0 4
3
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Some Problems
• How many millimeters are there in 2.5 meters?
The conversion factor must accomplish two things:
m x conversion factor = mm
It must cancel meters.
It must introduce millimeters
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The conversion factor takes a
fractional form.
mmm x = mm
m
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conversion factor
conversion factor
The conversion factor is derived from the equality. 1 m = 1000 mm
Divide both sides by 1000 mm
Divide both sides by 1 m
1 m 1000 mm = 1
1 m 1 m
1 m 1000 mm = 1
1000m 1000 mm
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Use the conversion factor with millimeters in the numerator and meters in the denominator.
1000 mmx
1 m2.5 m = 2500 mm
32.5 x 10 mm
How many millimeters are there in 2.5 meters?
1000 mm
1 m
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How many millimeters are there in 2.5 meters?
Use the conversion factor with millimeters in the numerator and meters in the denominator.
1000 mm
1 m
2.5 m 1000 mmx
1 m= 2500 mm
32.5 x 10 mm
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16.0 in2.54 cm
x 1 in
= 40.6 cm
2.54 cm1 in
Use this conversion factor
Convert 16.0 inches to centimeters.
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Centimeters can be converted to micrometers by a series of two conversion factors.
cm m meters
33.7 x 10 cm1 m
x 100 cm
1 = 3.7 x 10 m
610 μmx
1 m7 = 3.7 x 10 μm13.7 x 10 m
Convert 3.7 x 103 cm to micrometers.
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Convert 3.7 x 103 cm to micrometers.
33.7 x 10 cm1 m
x 100 cm
610 μmx
1 m7 = 3.7 x 10 μm
Centimeters can be converted to micrometers by writing down conversion factors in succession.
cm m meters
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MeasuringMass and Volume
MeasuringMass and Volume
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MassMass
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The standard unit of mass in the SI system is the kilogram. 1 kilogram is equal to the mass of a platinum-iridium cylinder kept in a vault at Sevres, France.
1 kg = 2.205 pounds
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Metric Units of mass Exponential
Unit Abbreviation Gram Equivalent Equivalent
kilogram kg 1,000 g 103 g
gram g 1 g 100 g
decigram dg 0.1 g 10-1 g
centigram cg 0.01 g 10-2 g
milligram mg 0.001 g 10-3 g
microgram g 0.000001 g 10-6 g
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Convert 45 decigrams to grams.
45 dg1 g
x 10 dg
= 4.5 g
1 g = 10 dg
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An atom of hydrogen weighs 1.674 x 10-24 g. How many ounces does the atom weigh?
1 lbx
454 g-241.674 x 10 g -27 3.69 x 10 lb
16 ozx
1 lb-26 5.90 x 10 oz-273.69 x 10 lb
1 lb = 454 g
16 oz = 1 lb
Grams can be converted to ounces using a series of two conversion factors.
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An atom of hydrogen weighs 1.674 x 10-24 g. How many ounces does the atom weigh?
-241.674 x 10 g1 lb
x454 g
16 ozx
1 lb-26 5.90 x 10 oz
Grams can be converted to ounces using a single linear expression by writing down conversion factors in succession.
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VolumeVolume
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Volume
• The amount of 3-dimensional space occupied by a substance
• Fundamental unit of volume in the SI System for volume is based on the volume of a cube measuring
1m x 1m x 1m = (1m)3 = 1m3 = one cubic meter
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The liter (L) and milliliter (mL) are the standard units of volume used in most
chemical laboratories.• 1m3 is split into 1000 smaller
cubes ….each has a volume of 1dm3
• 1dm3 = 1L (liter)
• A cube with a volume of 1dm3 can be split into 1000 smaller cubes each with a volume of 1cm3 = 1mL
(milliliter)
1L = 1000mL
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Convert 4.61 x 102 microliters to milliliters.
Microliters can be converted to milliliters using a series of two conversion factors.
L L mL
6
1 Lx
10 μL24.61x10 μL -4 4.61x10 L
-1 = 4.61 x 10 mL-44.61x10 L1000 mL
x1 L
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Microliters can be converted to milliliters using a linear expression by writing down conversion factors in succession.
L L mL
24.61x10 μL 6
1 Lx
10 μL1000 mL
x1 L
-1= 4.61 x 10 mL
Convert 4.61 x 102 microliters to milliliters.
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An extensive property of a material depends upon how much matter is is being considered.
An intensive property of a material does not depend upon how much matter is is being considered.
• mass
• length
• volume
• density
• temperature
• color
Extensive and Intensive Properties
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Measurement of Temperature
Measurement of Temperature
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Heat
• A form of energy that is associated with the motion of small particles of matter.
• Heat refers to the quantity of this energy associated with the system.
• The system is the entity that is being heated or cooled.
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Temperature
• A measure of the intensity of heat.• It does not depend on the size of the system.• Heat always flows from a region of higher
temperature to a region of lower temperature.
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Temperature Measurement
• The SI unit of temperature is the Kelvin.
• There are three temperature scales: Kelvin, Celsius and Fahrenheit.
• In the laboratory, temperature is commonly measured with a thermometer.
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3 Temperature Scales1. Celsius Scale – used in Europe and in physical and life sciences• Unit is oC• Freezing point of H2O is 0oC• Boiling point of H2O is 100oC
2. Fahrenheit Scale – used in US and Britain• Unit is oF • Freezing point of H2O is 32oF• Boiling point of H2O is 212oF
3. Absolute or Kelvin Scale Unit is K• Freezing point of H2O is 273K• Boiling point of H2O is 373K
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Temperature Scales
• The size of each temperature unit (each degree) is the same for the Celsius and Kelvin Scale
- the difference between the freezing point and boiling point of H2O is 100 units on both scales
• The Fahrenheit degree is smaller than the C or K degree
- On the F scale there are 180 F degrees between the boiling point and freezing point of H2O compared to 100 in the Celsius and Kelvin scales
• The zero points are different on all 3 scales
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Converting Between Scales
• Conversions Between K and C Scales• simple because the size of the units is the same toC + 273 = tK
Convert 70oC to K:70 + 273 = tK
tK = 343K
Convert 77K to oC:toC = 77 -273
toC = -196 oC
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Conversions Between F and C Scales
• Requires 2 adjustments1. Adjustment for different size of unit2. Adjustment for different zero points
• To convert Co to Fo: toF = 1.80(toC) + 32
Factor 1.8 is due to the fact that there are: 100C divisions/180F divisions = 1C division/ 1.8 F divisions or 1.8F div./1C div
• To convert Fo to Co: Subtract 32 from the F temperature (so both scales start at the same point) then multiply by the proper conversion unit toC = (toF – 32) (1oC/1.8oF)
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o o oF - 32 = 1.8 x C
To convert between the scales, use the following relationships:
o o oF = 1.8 x C + 32
oK = C + 273.15
oo F - 32C =
1.8
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It is not uncommon for temperatures in the Canadian plains to reach –60oF and below during the winter.
What is this temperature in oC and K?
oo F - 32C =
1.8
o o60. - 32C = = -51 C
1.8
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DensityDensity
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Density is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the volume occupied by that substance.
massd =
volume
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Mass is usually expressed in grams and volume in mL or cm3.
gd =
mL3
gd =
cm
The density of gases is expressed in grams per liter.
gd =
L
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Density varies with temperature
o
2
4 CH O
1.0000 g gd = = 1.0000
1.0000 mL mL
o
2
80 CH O
1.0000 g gd = = 0.97182
1.0290 mL mL
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ExamplesExamples
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A 13.5 mL sample of an unknown liquid
has a mass of 12.4 g. What is the density of the liquid?
MD
V 0.919 g/mL12.4g
13.5mL
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46.0 mL
98.1 g
A graduated cylinder is filled to the 35.0 mL mark with water. A copper nugget weighing 98.1 grams is immersed into the cylinder and the water level rises to the 46.0 mL. What is the volume of the copper nugget? What is the density of copper?
35.0 mL
copper nugget final initialV = V -V = 46.0mL - 35.0mL = 11.0mL
g/mL8.92mL11.0g98.1
VM
D
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The density of ether is 0.714 g/mL. What is the mass of 25.0 milliliters of ether?
Method 1 (a) Solve the density equation for mass.
massd =
volume
(b) Substitute the data and calculate.
mass = density x volume
0.714 g25.0 mL x = 17.9 g
mL
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The density of ether is 0.714 g/mL. What is the mass of 25.0 milliliters of ether?
Method 2 Dimensional Analysis. Use density as a conversion factor. Convert:
0.714 g25.0 ml x = 17.9 g
mL
mL → g
gmL x = g
mLThe conversion of units is
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The density of oxygen at 0oC is 1.429 g/L. What is the volume of 32.00 grams of oxygen at this temperature?
Method 1 (a) Solve the density equation for volume.
massd =
volume
(b) Substitute the data and calculate.
massvolume =
density
2
2
32.00 g Ovolume = = 22.40 L
1.429 g O /L
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The density of oxygen at 0oC is 1.429 g/L. What is the volume of 32.00 grams of oxygen at this temperature?
Method 2 Dimensional Analysis. Use density as a conversion factor. Convert:
2 22
1 L32.00 g O x = 22.40 L O
1.429 g O
g → L
Lg x = L
gThe conversion of units is
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Solving Problems
1. Read the problem carefully. Determine what is known and what is to be solved for and write it down.
– It is important to label all factors and units with the proper labels.
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2. Determine which principles are involved and which unit relationships are needed to solve the problem.
– You may need to refer to tables for needed data.3. Set up the problem in a neat, organized and
logical fashion.– Make sure unwanted units cancel. – Use sample problems in the text as guides for
setting up the problem.
Basic Steps
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4. Proceed with the necessary mathematical operations.
– Make certain that your answer contains the proper number of significant figures.
5. Check the answer to make sure it is reasonable.
Basic Steps
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Chapter 2
Atoms, Molecules and IonsPart 1
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In studying the materials of theEarth (and other parts of the Universe) scientists have found that all matter can be broken down chemically into about 118 different elements It is quite amazing that millions of known substances are composed of so few fundamental elements ….a phenomena not unlike the hundreds of thousands of known words composed from only 26 letters of the alphabet
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Compounds
Are made by combining atoms of the various elements…..
just as words are constructed from the 26 letters of the alphabet
and you had to learn the letters of the alphabet before you learned to read and write
You now must learn the names and symbols of the Chemical Elements before you can read and write chemistry!
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The Elements There are presently 118 known elements 88 occur naturally the remainder were made in the lab and decompose
spontaneously into others by radioactive decay the elements vary tremendously in abundance -only 10 constitute over 99% of the Earth’s crust -about 93% of the mass of our bodies is composed of only 3 elements: C, H, and O -the list of elements found in living matter differs greatly from that of the earth’s
crust
*** Elements are fundamental to understanding Chemistry
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How Chemists use the word Element
Element
-single atom of that element
-sample of the element large
enough to weigh on a balance
-some elementsthat contain
molecules ratherthan individual
atoms
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Single Atoms of an Element – microscopic form of an element
Sample of an Element Large Enough to Weigh on a Balance – Contains many, many atoms of the element and are the macroscopic form of an element
Some Elements that Contain Molecules Rather than Individual Atoms – macroscopic form of elements like oxygen, hydrogen Nitrogen, chlorine, bromine and iodine exist as O2 , H2 , N2 , Cl2 , Br2,F2 and I2
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Names for Elements The names of chemical elements come from a variety of
sources - they are often derived from Greek, Latin or German words
that describe some property of the element
ie. Gold- originally called aurum (Latin for “shinning dawn”) Lead- called plumbum (heavy) Names of Cl2(chlorine) and I2(iodine) come from Greek words describing their colors Bromine- derived from a Greek word for “stench”
Some elements are named for the place they were discovered: Francium, Germanium, Californium and Americium
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Element Symbols
Element symbols are abbreviations for element names.
Consist of the first letter or first two letters of the elements name The first letter is always capitalized! The second letter (if present) is never capitalized.
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Element Symbols
• Fluorine – F• Oxygen – O• Neon – Ne• Silicon – Si
Some have two letters which are not the first and second letters in the name
• Zinc – Zn• Chlorine – Cl• Cadmium – Cd• Platinum - Pt
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More Element Symbols
Some other elements are based on the Latin or Greek name.
• Gold (aurum) - Au• Lead (plumbum)- Pb• Sodium (natrium) - Na• Iron (ferrum) - Fe
• All 118 elements and their symbols are found in the inside front cover of your text….as well as in the Periodic Table
• We will look at the Periodic Table in detail in chapters to come
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Atomic Theory As scientists of the 18th Century studied the nature
of materials, several things became clear:1. Most natural materials are mixtures of pure substances2. Pure substances are either elements or combinations of elements
called compounds3. A given compound always contains the same proportions by mass of its
elementsie. H2O always contains 8g of oxygen for every 1g of hydrogen and CO2 always contains 2.7g of oxygen for every 1g of carbon - this is known as the Law of Constant Composition - this law says that a given compound has the same composition regardless of where it comes from
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John Dalton
• An English scientist and teacher• He knew of these observations and offered an
explanation for them• His explanation is known as:
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DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORYThe main ideas of his theory include:
1. Elements are made of tiny particles called atoms.2. All atoms of a given element are identical. Atoms of a given
element are different from those of any other element.3. Atoms of one element can combine with atoms of other
elements to form compounds. A given compound always has the same relative number and types of atoms
4. Atoms are indivisible in chemical processes. ** Atoms are not created or destroyed in chemical reactions.
A chemical reaction simply changes the way atoms are grouped together.
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* Dalton’s Theory offered simple explainations for some basic laws of chemistry such as:
The Law of Conservation of Mass Mass is neither created or destroyed. If atoms are conserved in a reaction then mass must also be
conservedThe Law of Constant Composition Tells us that a cmpd regardless of its origin or method of
preparation always contains the same elements in the same proportions by weight
Law of Multiple Proportions When 2 elements combine to form more than 1 cmpd the
masses of one element which combines with a fixed mass of the other elelment are in a ratio of small whole numbers such as 2:1