charles darwin goes tp school_the role of cartoons and narrative in setting science

The role of cartoons I Costa da Silva et al

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Charles Darwin goes to school: the role ofcartoons and narrative in setting science inan historical contextPaulo Roberto Costa da Silva, Paulo Rogdrio Miranda Correia andMaria Elena Infante-Malachias

University of S§o Paulo, Brazil

Science education is under revision. Recent changes in society require changes in education to respond to new demands.Scientific literacy can be considered a new goal of science education and the epistemological gap between natural sci-ences and literacy disciplines must be overcome. The history of science is a possible bridge to link these 'two cultures'and to foster an interdisciplinary approach in the classroom. This paper acknowledges Darwin's legacy and proposes theuse of cartoons and narrative expositions to put this interesting chapter of science into its historical context. A five-lessondidactic sequence was developed to tell part of the story of Darwin's expedition through South America for students from10 to 12 years of age. Beyond geological and biological perspectives, the inclusion of historical, social and geographicalfacts demonstrated the beauty and complexity of the findings that Darwin employed to propose the theory of evolution.Key words: Darwin; History of science; Biological education; Scientific literacy; Interdisciplinary approach; Narrative ex-position.

IntroductionThe bicentenary of Charles Darwin's birth is celebrated in2009. This is a time for acknowledging his life, history andunparalleled work that has remarkably changed the develop-ment of biological science and thinking. This commemorativeoccasion occurs during the UNESCO Decade of Educationfor Sustainable Development (ESD) between 2005 and 2014CUNESCO, 2002). Some of the key issues to be addressedduring this period involve a revision of the current paradigmsand practices that have guided traditional science educationthroughout the years. The recent change in the direction ofknowledge in society renders traditional education practices,based merely on information transmission, obsolete (Bybee,2006; Hodson, 2003; UNESCO, 2005; Veen and Vrakking,2007). Curriculum planners and teachers must be critical intheir understanding of the knowledge explosion. This debateshould encourage alternative proposals for responding to theloss of meaning that has affected science education (DeHaan,2005; Matthews 1989; UNESCO 2005).

The lack of interest in scientific topics on the part of stu-dents and teachers is occurring in a society inundated withscience and technology. This contradictory behaviour may bedue to the lack of relationships between everyday facts andthe contents of scholarly scientific disciplines. The dogmaticperspective and the idea that scientific knowledge is a 'finaland unquestionable product' have reinforced this separation.The consequence is a crisis of meaning in science educationthat has been discussed since the end of the 1990s (Donnelly,2004; Fourez, 1997; Hodson, 2003).

Concepts and processes related to science are frequently

presented without consideration of the historical and culturalcontexts in which they developed. This fact may be due tothe epistemological gap between natural sciences and literacydisciplines, as described by Snow (1959). The 'two cultures'effect was born in the research field (responsible for producingknowledge) and also affected the educational field (responsi-ble for diffusing the produced knowledge). As a consequence,students frequently perceive scholarly science as a monolithicand complex set of ideas. The focus on transmitting an increas-ing amount of information does not support the establishmentof conceptual relationships between science (including itsisolated scholarly disciplines) and other kinds of knowledgeto contextualise it (such as historical, social and political ele-ments). Moreover, scientists are seen as special human beingswho 'discover' the mysteries of nature apart from any socialcontext. Students represent them as 'individual geniuses'which is neither a correct, nor a useful, model to be followed.

The fact that science is perceived as a distant activity bystudents and teachers can be changed by establishing linksbetween scientific contents and the history of science. A po-tential consequence of this linkage is an increase in studentinterest, because science as an institution made by human-kind has a genuine taste of adventure and shows our strug-gle for freedom of thought (Holbrook and Rannikmae, 2007;Kolsto, 2008; Matthews, 1989). Moreover, historical aspectsof scientific development can also foster scientific literacythat can be considered the new goal of science education forthe 211 century (Deboer, 2000; Duschl, 2008; Pedretti andForbes, 2000; Santos, 2007).

Figure 1 shows a theoretical framework in the form of a

Volume 43 Number 4, Autumn 2009 1 JBE 175

Costa da Silva et al I The role of cartoons

concept map (CM). The need for revising science education

goals is presented in the upper centre and upper left portion

and involves 'scientific literacy' and 'science as a social prac-

tice' as key concepts. The loss of meaning caused by isolated,scholarly disciplines' and the desire for integrating knowledge

from diverse disciplines are presented in the upper right part

of the CM. The central bottom section of Figure 1 confronts

the 'history of science' (and science education goals) with the

'two cultures' (and the epistemological gap verified among

scholarly disciplines). From these ideas we suggest that the

history of science can be considered as one possible bridge tolink natural sciences and literacy disciplines (Figure 1).

A full understanding of science as a social practice requires

the use of the 'pertinent knowledge' principle (Morin, 2001)

and exploration of the disciplinary dialogue involving sciencesand the humanities (Donnelly, 2004; Duschl, 2008; Fourez,

1997; Hodson, 1992; Infante-Malachias and Correia, 2007;

Pedretti and Forbes, 2000). The need for this integration can

be noted in the various attempts to indude interdisciplinarityin the curriculum at all levels of formal education (Klein, 1996;

Lattuca, 2001; Lattuca, Voight and Fath, 2004; Moran, 2002).

Some of the greatest scientific debates through the cen-

turies and the scientists' role in them should be considered

when planning science lessons, in order to provide a historicaloverview and the cultural context of the construction of sci-

entific concepts and theories. The history of science can alsoemphasise science as a human enterprise (Kolsto, 2008; Mat-

thews, 1989). Unfortunately, the majority of the textbooks

used in K-12 education do not fully explore the relationship

between science and history (Leite, 2002), which hinders the

Figure 1. Concept map of current challenges to be overcome by science education.

achievement of scientific literacy (Deboer, 2000; Donnelly,2004; Fourez, 1997; Pedretti and Forbes, 2000; Santos, 2007).

The aim of this work is to present the possibility of usingthe history of science to overcome the epistemological gap

between the natural sciences and literacy disciplines. For thispurpose, we devised a five-lesson didactic sequence to deal

with the life and history of Charles Darwin using cartoons.

These cartoons narrate some events from Darwin's expedi-

tion on the Beagle during his passage through South America.

Our contextThe didactic sequence was used during the second semes-

ter of 2008 in a public school located in Sao Paulo, Brazil.

Thirty-six students aged 10 to 12 attended the classes, which

were conducted by the school's science teacher and one of

the authors (PRCS). At that time, PRCS was a pre-service

teacher in the last year of his undergraduate course at Escola

de Artes, Cibncias e Humanidades (School of Arts, Sciencesand Humanities at University of Sio Paulo). Active partici-

pation as a teacher in the classroom, with full supervision of

the school's science teachers, is an experience that all un-

dergraduate students must take to conclude their pre-servicelicentiate course in Brazil.

An overall description of the five-lesson didactic sequence is

presented in Table 1. Each lesson lasts 50 minutes. Narrative ex-

positions are used throughout the activities because of their po-

tential for communicating history to the students. The literature

shows that narratives have been explored in science education

(Norris et al, 2005). Narrative expositions are a useful strategythat can change the traditional roles assumed by teacher and stu-

dents during dasses. Figure 2 com-

pares the interaction patterns thatprevail in the traditional transmission-and-reception classroom (Figure 2a)and when narratives are used by the

F_7_• 7 •teacher (Figures 2b-2c). The former

_ is characterised by a uni-directionalflow of information from the teacherto the students (Figure 2a), who are

arranged in lines and rows. The latter

Srequires a different classroom set-upwith the students seated in a cirdc In

=fq:ý_ dithis case the interactions can be from

SfcLLY the teacher to the students (telling

the history phase, Figure 2b) andamong pairs (discussing the history

phase, Figure 2c).

Classroom proceduresdo, Lesson 1. Plymouth harbour and the

4-/ beginning of the expedition

Students were invited to rearrange

their chairs and sit in a circle (Fig-ure 2) to make a trip around the

I •x world on an English 1911, century7 O ship. A model made by LegoTM t

pieces was shown, and the students

were told that a young naturalist

called Charles Darwin, 22 years

old, is leaving his girlfriend, hisfamily and his career as an Angli-

can clergyman to engage in one of

176 JBE I Volume 43 Number 4, Autumn 2009

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the greatest scientific expeditions of the modem Table 1. Five-lesson didactic secera. During the telling phase, the following points Dirwin's life and his expeditionwere highlighted, using some pictures from the Lesson Stage of thebook Tree of Life: expedition

Darwin wanted to be a doctor, but did not suc-ceed.

The invitation for the expedition was made by I Plymouth/ Tenerif

his teacher, who was called J Henslow.Darwin's father, Dr Robert Darwin, was against

Darwin's involvement in this expedition.The discussion with the students focused on 2 Cape Verde Island

personal experiences involving trips to other Brazil

towns and the differences they noted. This put allstudents into the context and they were more mo- 3 Argentina/ Tierrativated to keep following Darwin's steps. A schol- Fuegoarly model of the Earth's globe was presented andthe students were asked to imagine an expedition 4 Chilearound the world on a wooden ship in a time be-fore electric power. 5 Galapagos Islands

Lesson 2. Cape Verde Island and Brazil: biologicalexuberanceDarwin's expedition visited the volcanic Cape Verde Island as the fossilisalbefore reaching Brazil; this fact was an unexpected surprise The role of fosfor the students. The teacher let them know that Darwin was life over time vastonished with the richness and beauty of Brazil's tropical replica and sarforest and that he took notes about everything he could. The formation of thcartoons presented in Figure 3 were shown to discuss Dar- geological poinwin's work as a naturalist (Figure 3a) and his disagreement The expeditiwith the slavery that existed in Brazil at the time (Figure 3b). America and D

Students were asked to locate the forest seen by Darwin The 'fueguinos'on a map of Brazil. Some of them pointed to the Amazon asked why. Therainforest and they were again surprised to learn that Darwin extinction of thvisited the Atlantic Forest on the Brazilian coast. They notedthat their school was part of the Atlantic Forest in the past Lesson 4. Chile: fand that less than 10S of the original forest now exists. This Exploring theconnection between the history and the geographical location Chile. The Andof their school reinforced the link between the students and win decided toDarwin's expedition. This motivation was enough to keep the tonished againstudents' interest high during the following classes. More sci- 2000 metres abentific elements were explored from this point onwards. how those fossi

sion took placeLesson 3.Argentina and Tierra del Fuego: finding fossils went there as 'Different types of rocks (igneous and sedimentary) as well the mountains,

Figure 2. Interaction patterns in classrooms: (a) uni-directional information flow from teacher to studentsin traditional classrooms; (b) the telling history phase and (c) the discussing history phase when narrativeexpositions are used. The teacher is represented by a black circle and the students by white circles.

quence for exploring cartoons and discussingon board the Beagle through a narrative exposition.

lel

Topics related toscientific concepts

Dolphins at Tenerife

Atlantic Forestexuberance

Fossil, igneous andsedimentary rocks

Fossils in the Andesmountain range

Finch, turtle andiguana species andtheir differences

Topics related toDarnin's expeditionand personal history

Invitation to theexpeditionAdaptation onboard the ship

Repulsion aboutslavery in BrazilFanny's marriage

Meeting with the'fueguinos'

ion process were presented during this class.sils in helping scientists understand changes intas the main subject. Students handled a fossilnples of igneous and sedimentary rocks. Theese rocks was discussed and compared from a

jt of view.on reached the southern extremity of Southarwin met people who lived in Tierra del Fuego.are no longer in that region, and the studentsstudents formulated hypotheses to explain thee 'fueguinos' and listed them on the blackboard.

finding fossils on the Andes mountain rangePacific Ocean, Darwin and his crew visitedes mountain range drew his attention, and Dar-climb it mounted on a mule. Students were as-when they learned that Darwin found fossils atove sea level. They were encouraged to explainIs came to be in the mountains. A lively discus-,and three hypotheses put forward: the fossilslive creatures', somebody carried the fossils toor the region was long ago at sea level. The

teacher further explored this last explana-tion and some students mentioned thatthe land could have moved up due to themovements of the tectonic plates. The finalminutes of this class was used by the teach-er to suggest a link between the Earth's in-temal dynamic (tectonic plate movement],the fossilisation process, and the existenceof fossils in the Andes mountain range. Atthis point, biological and geological per-spectives were merged to fully explain thispart of the history. Interdisciplinarity waspresent in the classroom.

Lesson 5. The Galapagos Islands: speciesdiversityDarwin's expedition arrived at the Gala-pagos Islands. Biological diversity was


D

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Costa da Silva et al I The role of cartoons

UMUU 64:4..) 1UA *

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Figure 3. Cartoons manually drawn by PRCS, selected for use in the classroom activities: (a - left) Darwin's enchantment with surprising and exuberant nature duringhis first experience In a tropical forest; (b - right) The Beagle arrives at Bahia de Todos os Santos (Brazil) and Darwin learns about a place with unique culturalfeatures and slavery, which is the subject of serious discussions with Fitz Roy (Beagle's captain).

highlighted and the drawings made by Darwin were dis-cussed as evidence of small differences between animals ofthe same species located on different islands. Finches, turtlesand iguanas were used to exemplify Darwin's observations.The finches' beak differences were shown through picturesand the students were asked to explain them. All sorts ofideas came up, and the teacher gave additional informationabout the dietary effect of the food that these birds couldfind on each island. The word 'adaptation' was mentioned bya student and its concept was developed by the teacher, wholinked it with evolution.

Cartoons and Darwin in our classroomSome of the cartoons prepared for use during the activitiesare shown in Figure 3. They were an effective way to fosterinterdisciplinary approaches, going beyond the boundariestypically imposed by scientific disciplines. Beyond Darwin'senchantment with the exuberant nature found in the tropicalforest (Figure 3a), cultural and social aspects of a Braziliancity (Bahia de Todos os Santos) visited by Darwin during hisexpedition were highlighted (Figure 3b) to explore the roleof 'non-scientific' knowledge to contextualise science discus-sions. This kind of connection shows how the history of sci-ence can deal with the lack of meaning of'scholarly science'and how it can foster scientific literacy in the classroom.

The rationale adopted for drawing the cartoons was basedon the following considerations:

To present science as a human construction that can beinfluenced by social, political and economic conditions foundat the time and place where the science was produced.


To highlight the role of the history of science in chang-ing the way science is traditionally taught in the majority ofclassrooms.

To show that the book The Origin of Species written byCharles Darwin in 1859 had a tremendous impact on theway humanity perceived itself in connection with nature.The 'evolutionary' turning point would not have been pos-sible without all the experiences Darwin had during his five-year expedition on board the Beagle through tropical landsin South America.

It is important to stress that the cartoons drawn for thiswork refer to the main events that Darwin experienced dur-ing part of his expedition through South America. Thesechoices were made by the authors, and they are subjectivein nature. Therefore, the story should not be presented inexactly the same format to other readers (students); it shouldbe built through the selection of the facts and rebuilt in anarrative/interpretative way with students in classroom.

From this perspective, the history of science can be a wayto make students aware of the importance of reading andinterpreting texts. Their previous and daily experiences ashuman beings are idiosyncratic, and different ways to inter-pret the cartoons naturally appear. The teacher must mediatethis process to avoid wrong and naive understandings and todetect and transform inadequate concepts. The interactionpatterns indicated in Figure 2b (the telling history phase) andFigure 2c (the discussing the history phase) can be used in acyclical way to achieve an adequate mediation process duringnarrative expositions.

The teacher can also work with cartoons to explore the


narrative features of the history of science. The beautiful col-lection of events that resulted in Darwin's account of evolu-tion can be discussed to allow students to note that he hadthe luck to live surrounded by inspiring ideas in his historicaltime (Gould, 1997). These ideas were responsible for guidingDarwin's interpretation of his observations and then propos-ing the theory of evolution.

Using the cartoons in th--dtdac-tic- csequ-t-eescribed inTable 1 made science classes more interesting, meaningfuland interactive. The students were active thinkers duringall proposed activities, and a shift of language level (closerto students aged 10-12) changed the teaching and learningprocesses in the classroom.

The study of Darwin's expedition offered an interestingopportunity to explore the interdisciplinary nature of thehistory of science. As the core of this didactic sequence, thehistory presented through cartoons allowed the teacher tointroduce scientific knowledge from that time (the 19T cen-tury), from different disciplines, such as geology (the study ofminerals and of rock strata formation), astronomy (the studyof celestial events for guiding travels across the seas) andbotany and zoology (study of animal and plant species col-lected in different places). These are just some of the ways inwhich an interdisciplinary approach can be used to organisethe contents of science classes. Other historical moments ofscientific and technological development can be used equallyeffectively to spread the history of science through the for-mal curriculum of science education at all educational levels.

Every teacher must be aware of the importance of findingtrustworthy sources of information about the historical factsused when creating the cartoons. They also need to be awareof the role that the history of science should fill. The useful-ness of any cartoon will depend on the author's sensitivity andknowledge, as well as his or her ability to make the appropri-ate choices for specific aims and audiences (different cartoonsshould be devised for the same event when it is presented forelementary and high school students, for example).

In this case, Darwin's expedition provoked discussionsabout Brazilian history, geographical localisation and scien-tific contents related to biological diversity. All of the car-toons used a set of images and text that were adequate forthe target audience (students of 10-12 years of age). As aresult, the teaching of evolutionary biology was not confinedto an abstract discussion involving scientific concepts. It alsoconsidered the history of a scientist (Charles Darwin) andthe adventurous nature of scientific entrepreneurship, whichis hidden for those who do not practise science and its meth-ods daily. Scientific and technological development can beperceived as a passionate and exciting fight for the freedomof thought.

Final considerationsScience education must be revised given the new demandsposed by the knowledge society. New perspectives using thehistory of science and interdisciplinary approaches may beuseful for fostering scientific literacy and the understandingof science as a social activity. This epistemological frameworkcan be explored in classrooms using narrative expositions(Figure 2). This form allows more opportunities for studentsto explore their individual models of history by interactingwith their peers (Figure 2b). While it is not explored in thiswork, it is worth mentioning that information technology

(IT) makes it possible for students to draw their own car-toons and express their own understanding.

This study acknowledged Darwin's fabulous contributionto biological science and took advantage of the bicentenary ofhis birth to 'invite him into school'. Darwin can tell his ownhistory through cartoons to children and young people whomay only know him by his name (if they do know his name!).The main character in the cartoons is a young naturalist: thishumanises Darwin and his discoveries, bringing this contextcloser to the students and relating it more to cultural, eco-nomical, ethical and political issues (Figure 3a and 3b).

The five-lesson didactic sequence (Table 1) was morechallenging and reflective for the students, supporting thedevelopment of skills related to critical thinking. Moreover,it allowed the adoption of an interdisciplinary approach toovercome the epistemological gap between the natural sci-ences and literacy disciplines (Figure 1).The history of sciencecan be a bridge between the 'two cultures' in the classroomto foster scientific literacy. It is an important prerequisite forensuring autonomous citizenship in the 21st century.

AcknowledgmentsThe authors thank the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvi-mento Cientifico e Tecnol6gico (CNPq) and Fundago deAmparo d Pesquisa do Estado de Sao Paulo (FAPESP) forfunding our research projects. P R C da Silva is in debt to thePr6-Reitoria de Graduagdo da Universidade de Sao Paulo forthe provided scholarship.

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Paulo Roberto Costa da Silva is a pre service teacherin the last year of his undergraduate course. PauloRog&io Miranda Correia is a full-time professorand researcher at the Escola deAries, Ciýncias eHumanidades, Universidade de Sdto Paulo. Website:u,ww.grupiecorg,[email protected]. Maria ElenaInfante-Malachias (corresponding author) is a full-timeprofessor and researcher at the Escola de Aries, Ciunciase Humanidades, Universidade de Sao Paulo (Av ArlindoBettlo 1000, 03828-000, Sfo Paulo, SP, Brazil). EmaiL-"[email protected].

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TITLE: Charles Darwin goes to school: the role of cartoons andnarrative in setting science in an historical context

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charles darwin goes tp school_the role of cartoons and narrative in setting science

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