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9/18/11 1 1 Chapter 08: Errors in LongTerm Memory 2 Do you remember where you were/what you were doing when you first heard about September 11 th ? Flashbulb Memories 3 Some QuesGons to Consider What kinds of events from their lives are people most likely to remember? Is there something special about memory for extraordinary events like the 9/11 terrorist aPacks? What properGes of the memory system make it both highly funcGonal and also prone to error? Is there an efficiency/accuracy tradeoff? Why is eyewitness tesGmony oSen cited as the cause of wrongful convicGons?

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Page 1: Chapter08: ErrorsinLong4TermMemorycribme.com/cu/data/Psychology/Cognitive Psychology/Test 1 Lecture… · 9/18/11! 7! 19 Flashbulb"Memories" • Highly"emoGonal" • Vivid • Very"detailed"

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Chapter  08:  Errors  in  Long-­‐Term  Memory  

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Do  you  remember  where  you  were/what  you  were  doing  when  you  first  heard  about  September  11th?  

Flashbulb  Memories  

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Some  QuesGons  to  Consider  •  What  kinds  of  events  from  their  lives  are  people  most  likely  to  remember?  

•  Is  there  something  special  about  memory  for  extraordinary  events  like  the  9/11  terrorist  aPacks?    

•  What  properGes  of  the  memory  system  make  it  both  highly  funcGonal  and  also  prone  to  error?    –  Is  there  an  efficiency/accuracy  trade-­‐off?  

•  Why  is  eyewitness  tesGmony  oSen  cited  as  the  cause  of  wrongful  convicGons?  

Page 2: Chapter08: ErrorsinLong4TermMemorycribme.com/cu/data/Psychology/Cognitive Psychology/Test 1 Lecture… · 9/18/11! 7! 19 Flashbulb"Memories" • Highly"emoGonal" • Vivid • Very"detailed"

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Autobiographical  Memory  (AM)  •  Recollected  events  that  belong  to  a  person’s  past  (episodic  memory)  •  Mental  Gme  travel  (Tulving)  •  MulGdimensional  – Rich  in  detail  – SpaGal,  emoGonal,  and  sensory  components  

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Autobiographical  Memory  •  Cabeza  and  coworkers  (2004)  – Compared  brain  acGvity  (fMRI)  caused  by  autobiographical  memory  and  laboratory  memory  

– ParGcipants  viewed  •  Photographs  they  took  (A-­‐photos)  •  Photographs  taken  by  someone  else  (L-­‐photos)  

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Autobiographical  Memory  •  Cabeza  and  coworkers  (2004)  

What  is  the  difference  between  seeing  a  photo  of  something  you’ve  seen  in  person  versus  someone  else  seeing  an  idenGcal  photo?  CogniGve  difference?  Psychological  difference?  

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Autobiographical  Memory  •  Both  types  of  photos  acGvated  brain  structures  associated  with  –  Episodic  memory  –  Processing  scenes  

•  A-­‐photos  also  acGvated  brain  structures  associated  with  –  Processing  info  about  the  self  – Memory  for  visual  space  – Mental  Gme  travel  memory  

•  Such  a  distributed  representaGon  in  the  brain  suggests  these  are  very  rich  memories!!!  

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(a) fMRI  response  of  an  area  in  the  parietal  cortex  showing  areas  acGvated  by  both  the  A-­‐photos  and  the  L-­‐photos  during  the  memory  test.  The  graph  on  the  right  indicates  that  acGvaGon  was  the  same  for  A-­‐photos  and  L-­‐photos.  

(b) Areas  in  the  parahippocampal  gyrus  that  were  acGvated  by  the  A-­‐photos  and  the  L-­‐photos.  The  graph  indicates  that  in  this  area  of  the  brain,  acGvaGon  was  greater  for  the  A-­‐photos.  

Episodic  memory;  Scene  processing  

Autobiographical;  SpaGal  informaGon  

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Memory  Over  the  Lifespan  • What  events  are  remembered  well?  – Significant  events  in  a  person’s  life  – Highly  emoGonal  events  – TransiGon  points  

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Reminiscence  Bump  •  ParGcipants  over  the  age  of  40  were  asked  to  recall  events  in  their  lives  •  Memory  is  high  for  recent  events  and  for  events  that  occurred  in  adolescence  and  early  adulthood  (between  10  and  30  years  of  age)  

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•  Percentage  of  memories  from  different  ages,  recalled  by  a  55-­‐year-­‐old,  showing  the  reminiscence  bump.  

•  (from  Journal  of  Memory  and  Language,  39,  R.W.  Schrauf  &  D.C.  Rubin,  “Bilingual  Autobiographical  Memory  in  Older  Adult  Immigrants:  A  Test  of  CogniGve  ExplanaGons  of  the  Reminiscence  Bump  and  the  LinguisGc  Encoding  of  Memories,”  pp.  437-­‐457,  Fig.  1.)  

Robert  Schrauf  Penn  State  U.  

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Reminiscence  Bump  •  Hypotheses  about  the  reminiscence  bump  

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Reminiscence  Bump  •  Self-­‐image  hypothesis  – Memory  is  enhanced  for  events  that  occur  as  a  person’s  self-­‐image  or  life  idenGty  is  being  formed  

– People  assume  idenGGes  during  adolescence  and  young  adulthood  •  Many  transiGons  occur  between  ages  10  and  30  

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Reminiscence  Bump  •  Cogni;ve  hypothesis  – Encoding  is  bePer  during  periods  of  rapid  change  that  are  followed  by  stability  

– Evidence  from  those  who  immigrated  to  the  US  aSer  young  adulthood  indicates  reminiscence  bump  is  shiSed  

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•  The  reminiscence  bump  for  people  who  emigrated  at  age  34  to  35  is  shiSed  toward  older  ages,  compared  to  the  bump  for  people  who  emigrated  between  the  ages  of  20  to  24.  

•  (from  Journal  of  Memory  and  Language,  39,  R.W.  Schrauf  &  D.C.  Rubin,  “Bilingual  Autobiographical  Memory  in  Older  Adult  Immigrants:  A  Test  of  CogniGve  ExplanaGons  of  the  Reminiscence  Bump  and  the  LinguisGc  Encoding  of  Memories,”  pp.  437-­‐457,  Fig.  2  

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Reminiscence  Bump  •  Cultural  life-­‐script  hypothesis  •  Each  person  has  – A  personal  life  story  – An  understanding  of  culturally  expected  events  

•  Personal  events  are  easier  to  recall  when  they  fit  the  cultural  life  script  – What  is  a  cultural  life  script?  • When  did  you  get  your  first  car?  •  Have  sex?    •  Vote?  

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Memory  for  EmoGonal  SGmuli  •  EmoGonal  events  are  remembered  more  easily  and  vividly  

•  EmoGon  improves  memory,  becomes  greater  with  Gme  (may  enhance  consolidaGon)  

•  Brain  acGvity:  amygdala    

•  It  is  important  to  remember  that  memory  for  emoGonal  content  can  be  enhanced,  but  the  confidence  you  have  in  that  memory  is  also  enhanced.  Why  can  this  be  a  problem?  

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Flashbulb  Memories  •  Memory  for  circumstances  surrounding  shocking,  highly  charged  important  events  (not  the  events  themselves)  – 9/11/01  – Kennedy  assassinaGon  – Challenger  explosion  

• Where  you  were,  and  what  you  were  doing?  

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Flashbulb  Memories  •  Highly  emoGonal  •  Vivid  •  Very  detailed  

•  People  report  that  flashbulb  memories  have  these  qualiGes  (Brown  &  Kulik,  1977),  but  do  they  really?  

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Flashbulb  Memories  •  Newer  results  suggest  that  these  memories  can  be  inaccurate  or  lacking  in  detail...  

– even  though  parGcipants  report  that  they  are  very  confident  and  that  the  memories  seem  very  vivid.  

“Memory  itself  is  an  internal  rumour.”  -­‐George  Santayana  

Talarico  &  Rubin  (2003)  

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Results  of  Talarico  and  Rubin’s  (2003)  flashbulb  memory  experiment.    (a)  The  decrease  in  the  number  of  details  remembered  was  similar  for  memories  of  9/11  and  for  memories  of  an  everyday  event.    (b)  ParGcipants’  belief  that  their  memory  was  accurate  remained  high  for  9/11,  but  decreased  for  memories  of  the  everyday  event.  (Talarico  &  Rubin,  Psychological  Science)   21  

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Flashbulb  Memories  •  Narra;ve  rehearsal  hypothesis  – Repeated  viewing/hearing  of  event  •  TV,  talking  with  others  • Could  introduce  errors  in  own  memory  

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The  ConstrucGve  Nature  of  Memory  •  Memory  =  What  actually  happened  +  person’s  knowledge,  experiences,  and  expectaGons.  

•  Memory  is  not  a  frozen  image  in  the  brain,  even  at  the  chemical  level,  memories  are  dynamic.  – Encoding,  consolidaGon,  reconsolidaGon.  

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The  ConstrucGve  Nature  of  Memory  •  BartleP’s  “war  of  the  ghosts”  experiment  – ParGcipants  aPempted  to  remember  a  story  from  a  different  culture  

– Repeated  reproducGon    •  Results  – Over  Gme,  reproducGon  became  shorter,  contained  omissions  and  inaccuracies.  

– Changed  to  make  the  story  more  consistent  with  their  own  culture.  

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One  night  two  young  men  from  Egulac  went  down  to  the  river  to  hunt  seals,  and  while  they  were  there  it  became  foggy  and  calm.  Then  they  heard  war  cries,  and  they  thought:  "Maybe  this  is  a  war  party".  They  escaped  to  the  shore  and  hid  behind  a  log.  Now  canoes  came  up,  and  they  heard  the  noise  of  paddles,  and  saw  one  canoe  coming  up  to  them.  There  were  five  men  in  the  canoe,  and  they  said:    "What  do  you  think?  We  wish  to  take  you  along.  We  are  going  up  the  river  to  make  war  on  the  people".    One  of  the  young  men  said:  "I  have  no  arrows".    "Arrows  are  in  the  canoe",  they  said.    "I  will  not  go  along.  I  might  be  killed.  My  relaGves  do  not  know  where  I  have  gone.  But  you",  he  said,  turning  to  the  other,  "may  go  with  them."    So  one  of  the  young  men  went,  but  the  other  returned  home.    And  the  warriors  went  on  up  the  river  to  a  town  on  the  other  side  of  Kalama.  The  people  came  down  to  the  water,  and  they  began  to  fight,  and  many  were  killed.  But  presently  the  young  man  heard  one  of  the  warriors  say:  "Quick,  let  us  go  home;  that  Indian  has  been  hit".  Now  he  thought:  "Oh,  they  are  ghosts".  He  did  not  feel  sick,  but  they  said  he  had  been  shot.    So  the  canoes  went  back  to  Egulac,  and  the  young  man  went  ashore  to  his  house  and  made  a  fire.  And  he  told  everybody  and  said:  "Behold  I  accompanied  the  ghosts,  and  we  went  to  fight.  Many  of  our  fellows  were  killed,  and  many  of  those  who  aPacked  us  were  killed.  They  said  I  was  hit,  and  I  did  not  feel  sick."  He  told  it  all,  and  then  he  became  quiet.  When  the  sun  rose  he  fell  down.  Something  black  came  out  of  his  mouth.  His  face  became  contorted.  The  people  jumped  up  and  cried.  He  was  dead.  

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ReproducGon  number  10  •  The  War  of  this  Ghosts:  •  Two  Indians  were  out  fishing  for  seals  in  the  Bay  of  Manpapan,  when  

along  came  five  other  Indians  in  a  war-­‐canoe.  They  were  going  fighGng.    

•  "Come  with  us,"  said  the  five  to  the  two,  "and  fight."    

•  "I  cannot  come,"  was  the  answer  of  the  one,  "for  I  have  an  old  mother  at  home  who  is  dependent  upon  me."  The  other  also  said  he  could  not  come,  because  he  had  no  arms.  "That  is  no  difficulty"  the  others  replied,  "for  we  have  plenty  in  the  canoe  with  us";  so  he  got  into  the  canoe  and  went  with  them.    

•  In  a  fight  soon  aSerwards  this  Indian  received  a  mortal  wound.  Finding  that  his  hour  was  come,  he  cried  out  that  he  was  about  to  die.  "Nonsense,"  said  one  of  the  others,  "you  will  not  die."  But  he  did.    

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BartleP’s  Analysis  of  the  Changes  •  The  story  became  shorter  and  more  coherent  •  “No  trace  of  an  odd,  or  supernatural  element  is  leS:  we  have  a  perfectly  straighrorward  story  of  a  fight  and  a  death.”  

•  Achieved  by:  –  Omissions:  ghosts  omiPed  early;  the  wound  became  a  maPer  of  flesh,  not  spirit  

–  RaGonalizaGon:  growing  coherence  among  parts  –  TransformaGon  of  details  into  more  familiar  and  convenGonal  examples  

–  Changing  order  of  events  

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Source  Monitoring  •  Source  memory:  process  of  determining  origins  of  our  memories  (perceptual  details,  emoGons,  thoughts)  – Did  you  hear  about  9/11  from  a  person  or  TV?  

•  Source  monitoring  error:  misidenGfying  source  of  memory  – Also  called  “source  misaPribuGons”  

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•  Design  of  Jacoby  et  al.’s  (1989)  “becoming  famous  overnight”  experiment.  

old  

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Source  Monitoring  •  Jacoby  et  al.  (1989)  •  ASer  24  hours,  some  old  non-­‐famous  names  were  misidenGfied  as  famous  •  ExplanaGon:  some  non-­‐famous  names  were  familiar,  and  the  parGcipants  misaPributed  the  source  of  the  familiarity  – Failed  to  idenGfy  the  source  as  the  non-­‐famous  list  from  the  day  before;  the  misaPribuGon  was  they  mistakenly  thought  the  familiar  names  were  famous  

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Making  Inferences  •  Memory  can  be  influenced  by  inferences  that  people  make  based  on  their  experiences  and  knowledge  •  Memory  oSen  includes  informaGon  that  is  implied  by  or  is  consistent  with  the  to-­‐be-­‐remembered  informaGon  but  was  not  explicitly  stated  – PragmaGc  inferences:  inferences  made  based  on  knowledge  gained  through  experience  “the  baby  stayed  awake  all  night” -­‐-­‐>  “the  baby  cried  all  night”  

actually  happened   your  memory  

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•  More  errors  were  made  by  the  experimental  group  because  they  idenGfied  more  sentences  as  being  originally  presented,  even  though  they  were  not.  

Bransford  and  Johnson’s  (1973)  experiment  that  tested  people’s  memory  for  the  wording  of  acGon  statements.  

If  they  read  about  pounding  a  nail  (experimental  group),  their  incorrect  memory  inferred  that  he  had  been  using  a  hammer  (vs  “looking  for  a  nail”  [control  group]).  

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Schemas  and  Scripts  •  Schema:  knowledge  about  what  is  involved  in  a  parGcular  experience  – Post  office,  ball  game,  classroom  

•  Script:  concepGon  of  sequence  of  acGons  that  occur  during  a  parGcular  experience  – Going  to  a  restaurant;  to  the  denGst  

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Schemas  and  Scripts  •  Schemas  and  scripts  influence  memory  – Memory  can  include  informaGon  not  actually  experienced  but  inferred  because  it  is  expected  and  consistent  with  the  schema  

– Office  waiGng  room:  books  not  present  but  menGoned  in  memory  task  (Brewer  &  Treyens,  1981)  

– The  construcGve  nature  of  memory  can  lead  to  errors  or  “false  memories”  

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ConstrucGon  of  Memories  •  Advantages  – Allows  us  to  “fill  in  the  blanks”  – CogniGon  is  creaGve  • Understand  language  •  Solve  problems  • Make  decisions  

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ConstrucGon  of  Memories  •  Disadvantages  – SomeGmes  we  make  errors  – SomeGmes  we  misaPribute  the  source  of  informaGon  • Was  it  actually  presented,  or  did  we  infer  it?  

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Power  of  SuggesGon  •  MisinformaGon  effect:  misleading  informaGon  presented  aSer  a  person  witnesses  an  event  can  change  how  that  person  describes  the  event  later  – Misleading  postevent  informaGon  (MPI)  

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Power  of  SuggesGon  

•  LoSus  and  coworkers  (1975)  – See  slides  of  traffic  accident  with  stop  sign  –  Introduce  MPI:  yield  sign  – ParGcipants  remember  what  they  heard  (yield  sign)  not  what  they  saw  (stop  sign)  

Elizabeth  LoSus  UC  Irvine  

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Power  of  SuggesGon  •  LoSus  and  Palmer  (1974)  – Hear  “smashed”  or  “hit”  in  descripGon  of  car  accident  

– Those  hearing  “smashed”  said  the  cars  were  going  much  faster  than  those  who  heard  “hit”  

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Power  of  SuggesGon  •  Hypotheses  about  the  misinformaGon  effect  

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Power  of  SuggesGon  •  Lindsey  (1990)  – Heard  a  story;  two  days  later  again  with  some  details  changed  

– Told  to  ignore  changes  – Same  voice  for  both  stories  created  source  monitoring  errors  

– Changing  voice  (male  to  female)  did  not  create  as  many  errors  

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Errors  in  Eyewitness  TesGmony  •  TesGmony  by  an  eyewitness  to  a  crime  about  what  he  or  she  saw  during  the  crime  •  One  of  the  most  convincing  types  of  evidence  to  a  jury  – Assume  that  people  see  and  remember  accurately  

•  But,  like  other  memory,  eyewitness  tesGmony  can  be  inaccurate  – Mistaken  idenGty  – ConstrucGve  nature  of  memory  

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Errors  in  Eyewitness  TesGmony  • Wells  &  Bradfield  (1998)  – ParGcipants  view  security  videotape  with  gunman  in  view  for  8  seconds  

– Everyone  idenGfied  someone  as  the  gunman  from  photographs  aSerwards  

– The  actual  gunman’s  picture  was  not  presented  

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Errors  in  Eyewitness  TesGmony  1.  Errors  due  to  arousal  2.  Errors  due  to  familiarity  3.  Errors  due  to  suggesGon  

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Errors  in  Eyewitness  TesGmony  •  Errors  due  to  aPenGon  and  arousal  – Low:  aPend  to  irrelevant  informaGon  – High:  focus  too  narrowly  – Moderate:  best  for  being  aware  of  relevant  informaGon  

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•  Results  of  Stanny  and  Johnson’s  (2000)  weapons-­‐focus  experiment.  Presence  of  a  weapon  that  was  fired  is  associated  with  a  decrease  in  memory  about  the  perpetrator,  the  vicGm,  and  the  weapon.  

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Errors  in  Eyewitness  TesGmony  •  Errors  due  to  familiarity  – Source  monitoring  

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(a) Design  of  Ross  et  al.’s  (1994)  experiment  on  the  effect  of  familiarity  on  eyewitness  tesGmony.    

(b) When  the  actual  robber  was  not  in  the  photospread,  the  male  teacher  was  erroneously  idenGfied  as  the  robber  60  percent  of  the  Gme.    

(c) When  the  actual  robber  was  in  the  photospread,  the  male  teacher  was  erroneously  idenGfied  less  than  20  percent  of  the  Gme.  

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Errors  in  Eyewitness  TesGmony  •  Errors  due  to  suggesGon  – SuggesGve  quesGoning  • MisinformaGon  effect  

– Confirming  feedback  

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•  Wells  and  Bradfield’s  (1998)  “Good,  you  idenGfied  the  suspect”  experiment.    

•  The  type  of  feedback  from  the  experimenter  influenced  the  parGcipants’  confidence  in  their  idenGficaGon,  with  confirming  feedback  resulGng  in  the  highest  confidence.    

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7  Deadly  Sins  

•  The  Seven  Sins  of  Memory:  How  the  Mind  Forgets  and  Remembers.  – Transience    – Absent  Mindedness  – Blocking  – Bias  – MisaPribuGon  – SuggesGbility  – Persistence    

Daniel  Schacter  Harvard  University