Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince (c. 1505)

Machiavelli was an Italian diplomat and political theorist. This work contains his advice to Princes on how they should govern. It was written in Italian, but translated into other languages, and copies were owned by many members of Europe’s political elite. The work was controversial due to its cynicism and amorality.

You could think about:

-The importance of war to early-modern government

-What made a good early-modern ruler

-The lifestyle of early-modern rulers

-The way early-modern politics functioned

‘CHAPTER XIV

That Which Concerns A Prince On The Subject Of The Art Of War

A PRINCE ought to have no other aim or thought, nor select anything else for his study, than war and its rules and discipline; for this is the sole art that belongs to him who rules, and it is of such force that it not only upholds those who are born princes, but it often enables men to rise from a private station to that rank. And, on the contrary, it is seen that when princes have thought more of ease than of arms they have lost their states.

…For among other evils which being unarmed brings you, it causes you to be despised, and this is one of those ignominies against which a prince ought to guard himself, as is shown later on. Because there is nothing proportionate between the armed and the unarmed; and it is not reasonable that he who is armed should yield obedience willingly to him who is unarmed, or that the unarmed man should be secure among armed servants.

…[A prince] ought never, therefore, to have out of his thoughts this subject of war, and in peace he should addict himself more to its exercise than in war; this he can do in two ways, the one by action, the other by study.

As regards action, he ought above all things to keep his men well organized and drilled, to follow incessantly the chase [=hunt], by which he accustoms his body to hardships, and learns something of the nature of localities [ i.e. the geography of his country].’

Castiglione The Book of the Courtier (1528)

Written by Castiglione as a guide to how courtiers (= people at a royal court) should behave. Organized as a series of fictional conversations between the courtiers of an Italian duke. One of the most popular early-modern books; written in Italian, and translated into many languages.

You could think about:

-The lifestyle of noblemen

-Ideals of early-modern politics (and how they might have differed from the reality)

-Ideals of early-modern masculinity

“I think then that the aim of the perfect Courtier…is so to win for himself, by means of ‘the accomplishments ascribed to him by these gentlemen, the favour and mind of the prince whom he serves, that he may be able to say, and always shall say, the truth about everything which it is fitting for the prince to know, without fear or risk of giving offence thereby; and that when he sees his prince's mind inclined to do something wrong, he may be quick to oppose, and gently to make use of the favour acquired by his good accomplishments, so as to banish every bad intent and lead his prince into the path of virtue. And thus, possessing the goodness which these gentlemen have described, together with readiness of wit and pleasantness, and shrewdness and knowledge of letters and many other things, — the Courtier will in every case be able deftly to show the prince how much honour and profit accrue to him and his from justice, liberality, magnanimity, gentleness, and the other virtues that become a good prince; and on the other hand how much infamy and loss proceed from the vices opposed to them. Therefore I think that just as music, festivals, games, and the other pleasant accomplishments are as it were the flower, in like manner to lead or help one's prince towards right, and to frighten him from wrong, are the true fruit of Courtiership.”

Thomas a Kempis, The Imitation of Christ , Book 2: 'The Interior Life: On Meditation' (c. 1427)

The Imitation of Christ is a Catholic devotional book, first written in Latin and then translated into many other languages. It is a guide to Christian life, based on imitating Jesus Christ. It was extremely popular in early modern Europe.

You could think about:

-What this extracts reveals about early modern religious beliefs

-The importance of religion in early modern society

-The importance of books in early modern life

“THE kingdom of God is within you," says the Lord.

Turn, then, to God with all your heart. Forsake this wretched world and your soul shall find rest. Learn to despise external things, to devote yourself to those that are within, and you will see the kingdom of God come unto you, that kingdom which is peace and joy in the Holy Spirit, gifts not given to the impious.

…

Therefore, faithful soul, prepare your heart for this Bridegroom that He may come and dwell within you; He Himself says: "If any one love Me, he will keep My word, and My Father will love him, and We will come to him, and will make Our abode with him.”

Give place, then, to Christ, but deny entrance to all others, for when you have Christ you are rich and He is sufficient for you. He will provide for you. He will supply your every want, so that you need not trust in frail, changeable men. Christ remains forever, standing firmly with us to the end.

…

If you do not know how to meditate on heavenly things, direct your thoughts to Christ's passion and willingly behold His sacred wounds. If you turn devoutly to the wounds and precious stigmata of Christ, you will find great comfort in suffering, you will mind but little the scorn of men, and you will easily bear their slanderous talk.

… Suffer with Christ and for Christ if you wish to reign with Him.”

Pieter Bruegel the Elder, 'The Fight Between Carnival and Lent' (1559)

This picture shows the transition period between Carnival (a time of meat eating and celebration) and Lent (a time of fasting from meat, and spiritual purification in preparation for Easter). It is set in the Southern Netherlands.

You could think about:

-Different groups in early-modern society, and the way they were viewed

-The way the Church and popular culture were seen

-The relationship between the church and the tavern (= early-modern pub)

Extracts from François Rabelais’ Fourth Book (1552)

You could consider what this passage suggests about:

The rhythm of the early-modern social and religious year The relationship between popular culture and Christianity Criticisms of the Catholic Church

CONTEXT: Lent was a 40 day fast, in which people were supposed to abstain from meat and dairy products, and to focus on prayer and charitable deeds, in preparation for Easter. Before Lent, however, came Carnival (literally meaning 'goodbye to meat') - a time in which people ate up all their meat and dairy in feasts (the ancestors of Shrove Tuesday!), and communities held ravenous and disorderly celebrations.  In these extracts, the French comic writer François Rabelais portrays Lent as a giant and Carnival as an aggressive band of sausages. Rabelais’ heroes are on a metaphorical sea voyage. They first are advised to avoid the Lent giant’s island. On the next island they end up being attacked by the Carnival sausages who mistake them for the Lent giant.

[About the Lent Giant]

`You`ll find nothing for your pot,` he said, `but a great swallower of dried peas, a great champer of snails, a great catcher of moles, a great trusser-up of hay, a semi-giant with a mangy beard and a double tonsure, the banner-bearer of the Fish-Eaters, a dictator of Mustardland, a beater of little boys, a burner of ashes, a father and enricher of physicians, one who abounds in pardons and indulgences (and church-visits to gain them) – a fine man, a good Catholic and of great devotion! He weeps three-quarters of the time and is never found at weddings. […] His dress is merry, I must say, both in cut and colour, for he wears grey and cold; nothing fore or aft; sleeves to match. […] We shall perhaps hear more fully about him when we pass through the Fierce Island dominated by the chubby Chitterling Sausages, who are his mortal enemies and against whom he wages a perpetual war. Were it not for the support of noble Mardi Gras, their good neighbour, Lent Arriving would long since have exiled them from their dwellings.`

[Attacked by the Sausages]

Thereupon the [Sausages’] master engineers set up the Great Sow stored in the ship... [….] Here follow the list of the names of the doughty and valiant cooks who entered that Sow...:Spiced-Stew, Lardy-Pork, Weary Willy, Cods-in-Wine, Master Slops, Grilled Steak, Freid Tripe, Hot-Pot, Pig`s Liver [etc],

Map of Early-Modern Europe in 1500

You could think about:

-How early-modern Europe was different from Europe today e.g. Germany and Italy

-The size of territories

-Where Europe might be said to have ended

-The effect all of this might have had on national identity