chapter - v architecture architecture, the science...
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CHAPTER - V
ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE, the science of constructions with a hoary past
is datable to Chalcolithic period. Revealed through the plans and struc
tural remains, the antianity of Indian Architecture goes back to the disco
veries made in the excavations conducted on the Indus sites. Classifiable
into Civil, Military and Ecclesiastical schools, the main function of archi
tecture is accommodative and protective with the tinge of aesthetics,
through artistic representations, in any of its forms.
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE is divisible into Tenaments, Storeyed Buildings,
Palaces and Facades, built for the commoners, income groups, aristocrates
and kingly harems; the objective of which is purely residential.
MILITARY ARCHITECTURE AIMS AT THE Defence of the Kingdom,
represented through fortifications, where the King with his political
and military retinue resides. Forts, the nucleus of Military Architecture
are classifiable into Sthala Durga (the Land Fort), Giri Durga (the Hill
Fort), Vana Durga (the Forest Fort), Jala Durga (the Fort either in
the Midst of Waters or on the River Banks) and the like (SII-VI-248;
SII-X-554, 559).
ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE symbolises the philosophy of the
Faith, for which the Citadel of Worship is constructed. The History
of Religious Architecture is as early as man's recognition of the Elements
of Nature, to be more powerful than Man himself. In the beginning
it was praying in silence in appreciation of these Elements. Later, the
same have been transformed into cults of power, represented through
the seals of Mother Goddess and Swastica, found in the excavations,
all over the world. These prayers, in course of time, have been
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j
channelised into different Practices of Worship, in the forms of Religious
Rites and Rituals, preserved in the tribal communities and societies.
Further, as time progressed, these Elements were given Zoomorphlc and
Anthropomorphic forms in addition to Tree Worship and slowly abodes
were constructed for placing these Images, to be the nucleus of worship.
In the further progress of Civilization many schools nf religious
thought were born with permutations and combinations of existing philoso
phies and accordingly multiple styles were adopted for construction of
the abodes of worship, till date. However, the basic feature of religious
architecture remained to be Pyramidal, since beginnings.
India, with its unbroken chain of religio-cultural continuity since
the dawn of civilisation has been maintaining the tradition of construction
of abodes for the Cosmic Man in multiple Forms, for those blossommed
on this soil and inroaded into India.
Andhra Desa, the true representative of the Indian soul, has patronised
many religions and philosophies. Centres of Worship have been constructed
with equal zeal for each of the sects of the faith, following different
traditions of architecture. One such earliest example is the Buddlst
Maha Chaltya at Amaravatl, a mud construction in the beginning, renovated
by Asoka, the Mauryan Emperor, and the successive dynasties upto
fourteenth century AD by a Ceyloneese Buddhist Pilgrim. (AMR-ASI-1980).
SCHOOLS OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE IN ANDHRA DESA
In addition to the Buddhist architectural representations through
the Maha Chaityas and Viharas, the three major forms of Indian Temple
Architecture v iz ., Nagara. Vesara and Dravlda are found in Andhra Desa
(ITF-MAD-1977): for, the Telugu people were never isolated from the
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socio-political setup of northern regions and have safely digested the
cultural roots from the Ganga-Yamuna doab, though they being a part
of the Dravidian cultural order.
The codes of Indian Temple architecture such as MANASOLLASA,
SAMARANGANA SUTRADHARA, APARAJITA PRCCHA and the like refer the
temple building traditions of northern provinces to be Nagaira, extended
upto Krishna-Tungabhadra valley: Vesara, the tradition assigned to the
country between Vindhya and Agastya (Nasik) i .e . , prevalent in the
Deccan Plateau and Dravida, found in the regions beyond river Krishna,
upto Indian Ocean in the south.
Structurally, the temples, square or oblong on plan, from base
to finial, are classed under Nagara; those circular or elliptical, from
base to griva and stupi, or square below, and round above or apsidal
are called V ^ a r a : and those temples square, octogonal or hexagonal
from base to final, oblong atop, belong to Dravida system. (ITF-MAD-
1977 and HT-SK-1946).
Coastal Andhra and the double-deltic area under study, for a long
time, was a part of the administrative empires of Mauryas, Satavahanas,
Ikshwakus, Pallavas, Vishnukundins, Eastern Chalukyas, Imperial Cholas,
Kakateeyas and the local rulers. Temples, the Citadels of Worship have
been constructed during the reign period of the said dynasties. Following
is the detailed account of the history of Brahminical temple architecture
in the area under study:
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ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF BRAHMINICAL ARCHITECTURE
IN i^DHRA DESA, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO COASTAL ANDHRA AND
THE AREA UNDER STUDY
The antiquity of Brahminical temple architecture in Andhra Desa
(ASIAP-BRP-1980) begins with the Bodhlghara structures of pre-christian
era, noticed in the Amaravati sculptures, known to be Rukka (Vrksha)
Chaltyas. Shrines representing the hypaethral order, were raised, all
over India, in the Buddhist tradition: and coastal Andhra is no exception.
Added , temples of open-air type were also raised. The temple dedicated
to Lord Parasurameswara at Gudimallam (DESA-IKS-1982) in Chittoor District
is considered to be the earliest temple structure in Andhra Desa. It
/originally had an image of Lord Siva in the anthropomorphic (Linga-with
Man) form, set in a circular Yonlpeetha, enclosed by a square railing
of lime stones, consisting of horizontal slabs with vertical uprights
and the medallions carved on them, resembling the railings at Amaravati
and Sanchi. Further, after a lapse of about four centuries, in second
century AD, an apsidal brick structure was raised at the same place,
enshrining the image, confirming the popularity of the Brahminical struc
tures, in the apsidal form.
SCULPTURAL REFERENCES (Fig.l to 5)
References to the art of temple architecture are found earlier in
the Sculptural representation as a preface to constructions in stone.
The Storeyed Structure form, found in the Ghantaslla Plaque (Fig. 4),
datable to first/second centuries AD, seems to be the earliest form of
temple Vlmina. It is a double storeyed superstructure, decorated with
blind doors and kutas crowned by an octagonal dome, together with a
stupi, are clearly depicted. There are five projected shrine-models.
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with a base for each, and a blind niche, topped by a tall chaitya arch,
with the interstices fashioned to be blind doors. Made to be proportiona
tely receeding, the second storey contains four shrine models, as in
the first storey. An octogonal pillar with an inverted-bell type member
and a stepped capital are carved in the interstices and in the later
spaces, respectively: with a couple of pillars at the centre. One shrine-
model, on each side, is carved on the top storey and with a pyramidal
supersturcutre depicted in the middle. The interstices contain blind
windows and the octogonal dome is topped by a stupi.
Further, a two-storeyed shrine model is noticed in a panel from
Jaggayyapet&(Fig.3) in which the Chaitya arches are depicted, on either
side of the blind window, in the superstructure, over the first storey.
The top storey is designed after an oblong roof of the Gajaprshta type.
An ivory seal (Plate 1), found in the excavations at Dharamkota,
datable to the first century BC /AD , depicts a structure with a double
barred railing pattern, with a double storeyed structure. There are
two arched-doors in the lower storey and a kuta type dome crowns the
top storey. The importance of the seal is that it resembles the super
structure of a southern temple.
In addition to the said sculptural panels and the designs on the
seal, the whole gamut of Buddhist sculptures are studded with such
^ /representations, as Kudus, Salas, Gavakshas and Panjaras, common to
secular and religious architecture, as well. Thus, the square, rectangular,
circular, elliptical and apsidal plans of temple architecture are found
in the early Buddhist sculptural art of Andhra Desa.
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NUMISMATIC REFERENCES:
Prototypes of Temple Architecture are found on the Coins issued
by Political dynasties. A typical lead coin supposed to have been issued
by Satavahana Yajna Sri, datable to 175-200 AD, suggests the existence
of shrines with Balipeetha (the Seat for placing the sacrificial offerings),
Dhwajasthambha (the Flagpost), and Vahana (the Vehicle), which are not
noticed either in the miniature shrines represented in the base-relief or
in the Stupa complex, or in the shrines at Nagarjunakonda.
/
Majority of the Coins issued by Satavahanas depict arched chaityas
on the obverse and Ujjain and other symbols on the reverse. However,
the following details on the obverse of the Coin under study (F ig .6) are
unique: A figure ressembling the human head is placed on a three pronged
design. To the left of the head there is a tall pillar and to the right
is a square with a bull standing facing right having a small opening at
the bottom. The wavy line below the stepped structure suggests a River
or a Confluence. Prototypes of the bull occur in the early Sculptures
from Amaravati etc., and on the Seals of the copper plate grants of Salanka-
yanas. Interestingly the three pronged design is almost siimilar to the
' / — - Trident borne on the Head of Lord Siva-Pasupati figure from Mohenjodaro.
Thus, the arrangements on the coin under study are suggestive of a miniature
Shrine-model of Lord Siva, on the banks of a water-base. The existence
of ^Saivaite Temples and the Worship of Lord Siva is recorded in the
Gatha SaptaMti of Hala (1- 1,69; 7-100). datable earlier to second century
/
AD. The phenomenal feature of the coin is that the practice of showing
the divine Vehicle of the God enshrined along with the Flagpost is typically
ancient. The same, after centuries have been standardised in the architec
tural features of the later day temples. (BMGM-VII-4-1959-PRS-BTSITA).
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EPlGRAPmCAL REFERENCES
References to temple architecture and the related technical terms
are also found in the lithographic and copper plate grants. The Velpur
Inscription (EI-XXXV-P8) datable to second century AD, refers to the
erection of a Mantapaprasada, dedicated to Lord Bhutagrahaka. A Mantapa-
Prasada is defined to be a structure sans superstructure, walls supported
by pillars at regular intervals, interestices filled with stone-slabs or
bricks. Such structures, common during the Satavahana period, seem
to have continued until nineth century AD, in Andhra and Karnataka Desas.
The inscriptions of Ikshwaku times also refer the temples to be
Prasadas and Devakulas. The inscription dated to the first regnal
year of Ehuvala Cantamula (EI-XXXV-P.6) refers to the construction of
a Devakula and (s)thala dedicated to Bhagavat Nodaglswaraswamln, by
Bhlgavata, the female Officer-in-charge of the royal harem; Ratavasa,
the daughter of a banker, and by some others. Talavara Elisri, the
grandson of Senapati Anikki and son of Gandi an intense devotee of
God Kumara i .e . Skanda-Kartikeya, built a Prasada (Sarvadevadhlvasa)
t
dedicated to Lord Siva (EI-XXXIII-P.149), during the eleventh regnal
year of Ehuvala Cahtamula. Maharaja Kumara vfrapurushadatta, the son
of Hariti who is also a Mahasenapati, caused to be built a Devakula
and Dhwajasthainba for Bhagavat Mahadeva Pushpabhadraswamin, during
the sixteenth regnal year of Maharaja Ehuvala Cantamula. (EI-XXXIV-P.19).
CONCEPT OF A TEMPLE IN INDIAN THOUGHT
Indian Philosophy (IIP-D8C-1980) recognises the dual approach
to the concept of Upasana for visualising the Ultimate Truth and Reality
to be Saguimpasana and Nlrgumpasana i .e . offering of prayers through
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the Images formed on the mental plane and sans formation of any image,
respectively. Gum stands for quality or attributes, which means Visuali
sation of the supreme Lord in Some Form or the Other, to maintain concen
tration through an Objective Correlative in the process of Subjective
Approach.
Object worship, the rear side of subjective approach, demands
offering of prayers by means of an IMAGE. Temples, the Centres of
Worship of the Cosmic Man , located away from the water resources
are known to be Naishtikasthanas and those located at the acquatic sources
like river banks, lakes, confluences or even sea shores, as per the later
puranic concepts, are known to be Tirthakshetras. Images were installed
and Idols were consecrated at the centres in the geometrical designs drawn
for the said purpose, rooted through the belief in Tantric worship, as
early as Chalcolithic period. Thus, the sthana i .e . the ground prepared
is known to be a Kshetra a potent site, where the spirits dwelt and invo
ked. The sthana is also meant to place the pitha or base of the circular
form in a square Vaistumandala design, at the centre, seeming to be the
origin of a Brahminical temple. (DESA-IKS-1982).
MATSYAPURAt^A, (MP-Pt.VII-Ch.XIX) One of the eighteen great epics of
India, forming the literary sources for the study of ancient Indian Culture,
describes the possible forms of a Brahminical temple, built either of wood,
brick or stone or with all the three materials. Bricks symbolise the
body of the sacrifice, for brick making is identified with the process
of offering the self to the Lord. Brick, as a unit, is the carrier, the
clay is the structure and the fire is the life of the unit; thus symbolising
the sacrifier building his own sacrificial body. Detailed prescriptions
of maKjng a well backed brick are recorded in the Smrtis (HT-SK-1946).
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BRHAT-SAMHITA (BS-Lv-2) encourages the Vedic concept of acquisition of
religious merit, for the builder and his generations, the Life in Heavens,
after the final departure, saying;
"Let him, who wishes to enter the worlds, that are reached
by sacrificial offerings and the performance of religious obli
gations, build a temple to the Gods, by doing which he attains
both the results of sacrifices and the performance of religious
obligations". (M .P. cclii)
Thus, Temples, the Nuclei of Metaphysical activities, represented
through the Physical manifestations in the Brahminical concept, are built
with the fervor of devotion, motivated through introspection, to be an
act of offering pious liberty to the restless soul, joining the Supreme
Infinite at the end, not alone for the builder, but for the twenty one gene
rations of his ancestors, (SSTTA-NVM; CII-III-P.83).
Vastumandalas, the sacrificial altars in their vertical elevation, pro
gressed in Pyramidal structure, have been classified into as many as
twenty-forms, in the works like Brhat samhlta and Matsyapurara. Amongst
them Meru, Mandara and Kallasa are the first three, suggesting the names
of mountains, in the vertical order (BS-Lv-17f;MP-x-cclxix-28f).
To provide the corraborative evidence for the literary sources in
Vedic and Puranlc texts, the Andhras seems to have shouldered the tradi-
tions of building temples dedicated to ^aivism, since third century BC
to tenth century AD, for a period of twelve centuries, in a chronological
order, beginning with the temple dedicated to Lord Parasurameswara at
Gudimallam, and later giving place to Vaishnavaite structures. Following
is the brief, but detailed account of the temples, both extant and struc
tural, since beginnings, followed by a descriptive account of the twelve
temples dedicated to Lord Bhavanarayana, in the area under study:
122
GUDIMALLAM
Gudimallam (DESA-IKS-1982) a tiny Village in the Chittoor district
has given birth to the earliest Brahminical temple, still living, since cons
truction, datable to third century BC, being renovated by many political
/ /dynasties, favoring Saivism. Excavations conducted by D r .I.K .Sarm a , revea
led the hoary antiquity of the temple dedicated to Lord Parasurameswara.
The prepared ground, meant for placing the images in the circular pithas
or bases in a square Vastumandala at the centre and the railing over the
ground prepared, the two ring-stones of the pitha, along with the image
of Lord Siva in the anthropomorphic form (Linga with Man), the suchis,
with carved medallions, the silver punch marked coins, found at the site,
belonging to the early Mauryan series - all studied together push the date
of temple back to third century BC. Further, an apsidal structure, made
of bricks, assignable to the early Satavahana period was built around the
extant Linga, adding a lime floor. However, no remarkable change is recor
ded either in the setup of the image, in the Linga form, or its base and
the railing. The brick walls reveal the battering position; and the basal
courses laid in a stepped fashion, belong to second Century AD. There
does not seem to be any addition to the temple, for a period of more than
six centuries. The renovation work taken up in the second half of the
nineth century continued upto the seventeenth century, during which the
present complex was added to the original, as attested by the epigraphical
references (EI-XI-p.222 to 242; EI-XVII-p.l to 7) and architectural features.
VEERi^URAM
Until recent past, it is believed that the structural remains, found
in the excavations at Nagarjunakonda, are the direct successors of the
architectural styles of the earliest temple at Gudimallam. Thanks to Birla
Archaeological and Research Institute, for proving that the cluster of nine
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temples found at VEERAPURAM. A TYPE SITE IN KURNOOL DISTRICT (1984)
to be mid-way between Gudimallam and Nagarjunakonda, from the perspective
of continuity of temple architecture studied through structural remains.
The brick structural remains found at Veerapuram, suggestive of an
earliest attempt to provide squariash or rectangular chambers for the sant-
cum are contrary to the belief that the origin of squarish shrines is
creditable to north Indian temples. The coins, belonging to a Maharathi
/King Siva Khada Hathi and King Khadadata of an unknown dynasty, found
at the site, suggest the circumstantial evidence that the temples might
have been caused by them or during their regnal period. (VTSK-BARI-1984).
A close examination of the plans of the nine temples suggest that
the shrines were built in three phases. In the first phase, a flooring
made of Cuddapah slabs is noticed over the foundation. The walls built
with three or four courses of bricks have retained the primitive feature
of raising the walls with an off-set, as noticed in temples 3 8 9. The
empty ring-stones and the passage round the sanctum, suggest that it is
a Saivaite shrine and the passage was ussed for circumambulatory purposes.
The pradakshimpatha, round the sanctum indicates the Origins of S^dhra
tradition in the temple architecture. The recepticle i .e . Kunda, used for
collecting the waters of holy bath given to the Lord, through the drains,
connecting with the main shrine, found in all the temples, seems to be
an architectural feature. Excepting one particular temple, facing east,
all the other temples face north, overlooking the river Krishna.
During the second phase, the temples were provided with two off
sets, as observed in the external brick walls, the precurssors of later
adhishthana. A high squarish pedestal, provided with a circular
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depression in the rear wall within the shrine, for installation of the Linga
/form of Lord Siva, suggests a direct approach into the sanctum sans any
parlkrama and features the nlrandhara tradition as found in the temple
N o .7.
Excluding the attempt to cluster two or three temples under one roof,
no major change is noticed in the construction during the third phase,
excepting the squarish form of Linga replaced by a cylindrical, providing
an arghya with a Varimarga, readjusting the entrance steps and the drains.
Thus, it is clear that sincere attempts were made in the first and
second centuries AD, to provide a stable home for prayers and worship
of the Lord, viewing the Formless God in a Sthula or Symbolic form.
The squarish Linga has been changed to be cylindrical and the squarish
pedestal into a circular ring, with a projected water out-let termed to
be an Arghya with a VaHmarga. The temples facing north and east in
the earlier stages, were facing the other directions also, by the time the
deities were grouped. Enclosure walls, provided for security measures,
were after the practices of human inhabitations, forming the basis for the
/prakara walls, clustering the temples. Saivism, represented through the
worship of Lord Siva, in the forms, of Linga, Skanda and Ganesh, is well
established under a common roof. In course of time, the same practice
has helped in constructing the sub-shrines for parivara devatas alongwith
the shrine proper in the temple complex. (VTSK-BARI-1984).
NAG^UNAKONDA
125
Considering the Parasurameswara Temple at Gudimallam and the remains
of the cluster of temples at Veerapuram, to be the earliest forms of Brah-
minical temple architecture in Andhra Desa, the remains of the temples
unearthed at Nagarjunakonda form an important chapter in the evolution
of temple architecture, in the area under study. The excavations conductd
at Veerapuram proved that the origins of squarish shrines is creditable
to Andhra Desa and the excavations conducted at Nagarjunakonda confirmed
the belief that the apsidal forms of temples are also of southern origin
(VTSK-BARI-1984). Thus, Andhras proved to be doyens of Brahminical
temple architecture in the squarish and apsidal forms as well.
Of the more than one dozen temples found at Nagarjunakonda (NGK -
ASI-1972) majority of them are dedicated to Saivism, the most favored
faith by the royalty in addition to different sects of Buddhism. The tem
ples, basically are Square, Apsidal, Oblong and Rectangular on plan. It
seems that the apsidal temples have maintained the widtti-length-helght
ratio, ranging from 1 :1 :4 to 1 :1 :8 . Brick was mainly used for the sanctum,
whereas lime-stone for pillared halls and cloisters. Pillars with a wide
rectangular notch, cut longitudinally, were used to receive wooden beams.
Roofs of the halls were laid using brick and mortar. Lime stone pillars,
along the apse, inside the apsidal form, were meant to support the struc
ture, as found in the Pushpabhadra Swamy Temple. Most of the temples
are found raised on elevated plinths, with a plain profile and walls.
Mantapas had flat roofs, the apsidal barrel vaulted roofs, and the square
storeyed superstructure (after the Ghantas^a relief) and the rectangular
and oblong (after the Jaggayyapeta relief) had the Wagon-topped roofs.
The Sarwadeva Temple, constructed by Elisiri, the C ommander-in-Chief
of Ehuvala Cantamula during his eleventh regnal year referred to be Mantapa
Praisada is a storeyed palatial temple. (E1-XXXIII-P.149).
The Pushpabhadraswamy Temple, built during the fourteenth regnal
year of Ehuvala Cantamula comprises an apsidal shrine, a detached mantapa,
126
a flag-post, and a Pr&kara with gateways on all sides. The apsidal struc
ture does not seem to be having the plinth area. The walls are characteri
sed by stone pillars at regular intervals and the interstices are filled
with brick courses, veneered with stone slabs. The superstructure should
have been in an apsidal form built of bricks, with stucco work on the
exterior. There is a sixteen pillared mantapa, a little away from the
main shrine. Also there is a flag staff opposite the pillared hall, fixed
on a pedestal, with a notch atop, and a label inscription referring to the
God enshrined. (El-XXXIV, P. 19).
The Kartikeya Temple on plan consists of a square-shrine, a rectan
gular antarala and an 'L ' shaped mantapa with six rows of five pillars,
each.
The temple dedicated to Ashtabhuja Swamy dated 278 AD; consists
of an apsidal and oblong cellas, each possessing a pillared hall on the
front and rear sides, as well.
CHEJERLA
The next important temple in the chronological sequence is the
Kap5teswara Temple at Chejerla in Narasaraopet Tq , in Guntur District.
The temple described to be a Buddhist apsidal Chaitya, later said to have
/been appropriated by the Vedists into a Saivaite temple, consists of a
Gajai^rsthak^a Garbha grha, an antarala and a mukhamantapa, the last two
being later additions: and the square pillars in the Mukhamantapa, with
label inscriptions are datable to fourth/fifth centuries AD . SII-VI-593 to 601
However, the plinth area indicates an antarala and the mukhamantapa (added
later), with the Padabandha Adhishthina, showing the Tripattakumuda moul
ding with an Upana, Jagati and Pattika mouldings for the sanctum. Like
127
the earliest temple at Gudimallam the temple at Chffrjerla is still a living
temple since its foundation, patronaged by various political dynasties, attes
ted by inscriptional evidence found at the site. (ITIHAS-III-1-1975; BTCGC-
TVGS).
KEESARAGUTTA
Although, the brick temple complex, found in the excavations at
Keesaragutta, in the Rangareddi District; does not include the temples in
the area under study; the structures are worth study, for they help in
understanding the continuity of Brahminical temple architecture in Sndhra
Desa. The temples of the complex were constructed during the Vishnukundin
rule and Keesaragutta being an one time capital of Vishnukundins.
/An early Saivaite Brick temple square on plan, with a square brick
pedestal at the centre, meant to instal a square Linga with a covered drain
on the north-east corner for conducting out the water used for sacred ablu
tions, is situated opposite the western gate-ways of the fort. The floor
inside the temple is paved with bricks. However the superstructure is
in ruins. A mukhamantapa was later adjoined to the square sanctum, built
of bricks belong to the temple of Jaina faith. A brick square structure
with a hole and a Linga is situated about 400 meters away from the present
excavated site towards the west. The importance of the temple is that
the Linga is square at Brahmabhaga, octogonal at Vishnubhaga and Rudra-
bhaga being the earliest. Added the structure is unique for, the Linga
is devoid of Panavatta i .e . , the arghya with a varimarga , unlike the
structures at Veerapuram, datable to second/third centuries AD . On compa
rative grounds, the plan of the temple is similar to the open-air shrines
found at Yeleswaram on the banks of river Krishna.
128
The transition from brick to stone is seen in the temples constructed
during the second phase. About 100 metres away from the Jaina temple,
/a small temple dedicated to Lord Siva, constructed entirely of granite but
for the brick Yoni peetha, belongs to the last phase. The transformation
to stone, from brick, seems to be due to the influence of the rock-cut
architecture of the preceeding ages and the easy availability of sandstone
and Khondalite in the areas, where the temples are built. Owing to the
/ / _continued patronage of Saivism, by Satavahanas and their successive rulers,
✓a large number of Saivaite shrines were constructed.
Temples with square, rectangular and apsidal plans, plain walls and
superstructures having one or two storeyes crowned by square sikharas,
seem to be the order of the temple architecture, during the first half
of the first millennium of Christian era. The shrine models at Yeleswaram,
and Chejerla reveal the basic Ekatala Vlmaha of Dravidian style, with diffe
rent kinds of bases i .e . adhishthanas, inclusive of mouldings of various
types, the walls, the superstructure and the slkhara. These components
of temple architecture, have been codified and formed into salient features
of a Dravidian temple, as described in the later works on temple architec
ture, like Kamika Agamam, Karapa Agamam, isana Slvagurudeva Paddhatl
etc., datable to tenth century AD and onwards.
Descriptive account of a Typical Dravidian Tasple (fig.7 fi 8)
The lower most element of the temple is the Pltha or the base.
Temples built earlier to tenth century AD, seem to be devoid of the Upapitha
or the sub-bases. Later, these upapithas have created different kinds of
mouldings, known to be Upana (the lower most moulding). Jagati (the ver
tical moulding), Kampa (the fillet), Pattlka (the thick moulding).
129
Kantha (the large recessed moulding), Kapota (the over-hanging moulding
of the cornice) and Prati (the thick flat moulding). Most of these mould
ings are found used in the architectural features of the temples, in the
area under study.
The Vastu texts of the Dravidian school of architecture classify the
Adhishthanas according to the proQ.les of the principal mouldings. They
are - Padabandha, Pratibandha, Padmabandha, Kapotabandha and Manchabandha.
Following are the details:
PADABANDHA: The Padabandha base is composed of an Upana, Jagati.
Tripattakumuda (a three-faceted moulding), Kantha and Pattlka.
PRATIBANDHA: Use of a Vrttakumuda (the circular moulding) is the distin
guishing feature of Pratibandha type of adhishthana.
PADMABANDHA: The Padmabandha adhishthana consists of an Upana, Jagati,
Padma and Pattlka mouldings. The fluted kumuda mouldings appear since
nineth century AD, while the vedika mouldings above the kap'ota, from
tenth century onwards. Likewise, the Urdhwapadma and the Adhopadma
mouldings have been introduced in the bases since tenth century AD.
KAPOTABANDHA: In the Kapotabandha adhishthana either the Vrtta or the
tripatta Kumuda are used and the crowing moulding is invariably kapota.
MANCHABANDHA: The Machabandha adhishthana is devoid of the kumuda
moulding either in the faceted or circular form.
The next important component in the temple architecture is the wall i .e . ,
Bhitti of the Pada, composed of a bhlttlsthambha or a kudyasthambha,
supporting at equal intervals. The recesses between each of the sthambhas
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are filled with Panjaras and the devakoshtas. The bhittisthambhas are
square pilasters composed of mulasthambha, lasuna, dadi, kumbha, phalika-
padma, Virakantha and Podika in the upper region of the shaft. The Kosh-
tapanjara is fashicned into a projected section with framing pilasters suppor
ted by the kapota and above the same a shrine-front of an apsidal form
or square shrine model is carved.
Devakoshthas, the niches on the central offset of the wall are on the
garbhagrha, the antarala and on the mukhamantapa with framing pilasters
and a kapota lintel, above all. Either a makara toram, or a salasikhara
in wagon-topped or barrel vaulted roof, are set over these devakoshtas.
Sometimes, there will be silt type of niches, sans framing pilasters as
crowning members.
Kumbhapanjaras as a decorative motif on the walls, begin since eleventh
century AD . A vase with an overflowing flowers deocration supports the
shaft, topped by Nasi (a horse-shoe shaped motif).
Prastara denotes the entablature over the wall or pillars, constituting the
mouldings of an Uttara (the beam) Vajana, Valabhl (the bhutamala line),
Kapota. alinga, antari, prati and Vajana. Normally the hamsamala or bhuta
mala or both embellish the valabhi moulding. Kapota. the over-hanging
moulding over cornice is projected duly decorated with nasifi.
The terrace at the bottom is marked by Vyalas (the leonine form)
and a row of the miniature shrines called hara consisting of a kuta, sala
and panjara, working to be a parapet. If the superstructure is of a single
storey it is known as Ekatala Vimana. Elaborate superstructure with two
or three Vimanas follow the same design.
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The griva and the sikhara, normally square and rarely circular or Octogonal
are inset with a devakoshtha facing the four cardinal points. The crowning
member called Stupi. is the finial.
In the Dravidian school of architecture, the roofs of the antarala
and the mukhamantapa are flat. At times the extension of the hara consis
ting of kuta, sale and panjara, are adapted to the antarala and the mukha-
mantapa. Above the roof of the antarala the projecting element adapting
the design of the storey is decorated with a large horse-shoe shaped arch,
inset with a diety related to the God enshrined is called sukanasa; which
however does not form the characteristic features of a Dravida Vimana.
/ _
Sukanasa seems to be the influence of the Nagara tradition on the temples
of Andhra Desa. (ASIAP-BRP-1980).
Although the canons of architecture do not describe much about the
carved doorways to be a feature of Dravidian tempe architecture the temples
of Andhra Desa, possess richly carved doorways, consisting either two,
three or five jambs i .e . , sakhas. Dwarapalas, usually carved at the begi
nnings of the jambs on either sides, however occassionally flank the doors.
The square block in the mid-lintel, known to be lalatabimba, is inset
with Gajalakshmi motif, and above the same the kapota moulding is set,
often decorated with a makara torana or miniature shrine models.
The mantapa i .e . the hall is supported by the Sthambhas i .e . , pillars.
In the earlier stages, the pillars devoid of a base, were squarish. The
shaft of the pilasters is terminated by a cube called mulasthana, decorated
with the loops or garlands and the pearls hanging from the mouths of kirti-
mukhas. The constituents of the capital are - lasuna (the pitcher), dadi
(the cushion shaped moulding with a convex profile), kumbha (the vase.
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Occasionally flattened and inverted), phalika (an inverted lotus with petals
and base) and phalaka (the abacus), as the plan be. virakantha, a square
rinwfil - 11kf> member, holds the corbel above. The P5dika corbel in hori
zontal rolls or simple semi-circular profiles is decorated with a median
band.
The early phase of the ecclesiastical architecture in the area under
study, according to the Dravidian style, covers the period ranging from
the second quarter of the seventh 'century upto the end of nineth century
AD. However, no records or the remains of the period are found intact.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF LIVING STRUCTURAL TEMPLES
Thus, as a conjoining to the theoretical description of the a'chitecture
of a Dravidian temple, a brief descriptive account of the important living
structural temples, excepting the temples at Chejerla, in the area under
study, in a chronological order, is following (ASIAP-BRP-1980);
The earliest known structural temple completely in stone, dedicated
to Lord Jalapeswara is situated 8 Km s.away from Pondugula village in Guntur
District. It was a part of former Vengidesa. The temple on plan consists
of a garbhagrhaj an antarala and a mukhamantapa. The walls of the sanctum
show deep offsets and recessess with bhadra, karna and salilantara sec
tions, in manasutra. The padabandha adhishthana, which formed to be
the feature of the temples of the land, has an upana, jagati, tripattakumuda,
and kantha with galapasa and pattika mouldings. The walls of the sanctum
having niches in the koshtapanjaras figure in the salilantaras. The devakoshtas
are adorned by the makara toranas. Strong and robust lions mark the
deeply projecting offsets and recessed parts, "fhe superstructure is a dwi-
t£da vimana with a greater width at the base and the same wall pattern
133
is adopted in the storeys. The subdued griva, the separated phalaka.
the square sikhara are among other features. The exteriors of mukhaman-
tapa and antarala are plain, except for a small window. The three jambed
doorway, decorated with lata, latapatra and sthambha motifs, is flanked
by dwarapalas at the base. The pillars in the mukhamantapa. square at
the bottom and atop, are octagonal at the middle. The upper portion of
the shaft is made into lacuna, kumbha, Virakantha and taranga corbel motifs.
Added a stepped pyramidal superstructure is also found in the same
/area. The temple dedicated to Lord Siva in Terala, Guntur District, data
ble to eighth century AD. is the earliest example of the type. The temple
has a garbhagrha, an antarala and a mukhamantapa. Laid-out on a dwi-
anga plan, the sanctum has a niche on each side of the wall, now buried
upto the cornice level.
The typical features of Dravidian temple architecture are found much
intact in the temples at Biccavole in East Godavari district datable to
Gunaga Vijayaditya's period. The Golingeswara temple consists of a garbha
grha, an antarala and a mukhamantapa, revealing the deep offsets and rece
sses. The garbhagrha marks the use of padbandha and pratibandha types
of adhishthanas, with upana, padmajagati, vrtta, tripattakumuda, kantha,
kampa, pottika and prati sequence of mouldings.
Owing to the nearness in land route, political affinity and cultural
integration^ Kinship exists between the Andhras and Tamilians. The same
could be found in temple architecture, particularly in the wall pattern
and in the ordering of elements of the superstructure. The squattish appea
rance of the superstructure and the preference for square sikhara form
special features of temple architecture in the Vengidesa. However, the
134
Vengi architect had maintained individuality of the land. The temples
of Vengidesa, in contrast to the Tondaimandalam temples, posses a fine
mixture of architectonic outlook and decorative character of the walls.
The square sikhara, heavy and broad superstructure, lack of sukanasa,
the pada and pratibandha adhishttanas, further mark the style.
_ /The K^amukha sect of Salvism, emerged during the nineth and tenth
centuries AD has established simhaparishads at centres like Bezawada (the
medieaval name for Vijayawada) and Amaravati. Founded by Lakulisapasupati,
the Kalamukhas had enjoyed the royal patronage and the maths established
became educational institutions and functioned to be nuclei of activities
of social upliftment as well. The mercantile guilds such as Nakaramu,
Santa Nakaram, Naiiadesi Pekkendru etc acclerated the growth of the Kaiamukha
sect. As a mark of supermacy over other cults and sects, temples were
constructed at five important commercial centres in the coastal Andhra,
in the name of Pancharamas, viz. Amararama at Amaravati, Daksh^ama
at Draksharamam, Kumararama at Samarlakota, SSmarama at Bhimavaram and
BMmarama at Chebrolu. (RA-BSL-1973).
A marked distinction is seen in temple architecture in Vengidesa,
since Chalukya Bhima-I, during whose period, the temple building activity
gained momentum. The temple essentially contained a ground-floor, either
functional or solid and the upper floor is reached through a flight of steps
from inside or outside or the ground floor, and the upper floor has all
the adjuncts i .e . , the mukhamantapa and the garbhagrha in the sandhara
layout. Either the bhadragavaksha or the bhadravalokana are provided
in the exterior wall opposite the sanctum, essentially in the Sarvatbbhadra
plan, with plain exteriors crowned by a three storeyed superstructure.
135
The temples dedicated to Saivism, at various centres in the area
under study, such as the Bhlmeswara temple at Chalikya Bhlmavaram-
Samarlakot, known as KumarSrama; the Bhlmeswara temple at Chebrolu;
the Someswara temple at Bhimavaram and the Amreswara temple at Amaravati,
were constructed during tenth century AD. Added, the temple dedicated
to God Virabhadra and the temples named Nakkalagudi and Kancharagudi-
all found in Bikkavole village are built during the nineth and tenth centuries.
The temples are dated on epigraphical evidences, wherever inscriptional
records are available, and on the basis of typology and stylistics in
the absence of lithic records.
The massive temple at Daksharama is enclosed by two prakaras
on outer enclosure, with several mantapas and subsidary shrines. The
four gopuras on the upper enclosure stand on the cardinal directions.
The main edifice and the outer enclosure with the gopuras, are expanded
by the inner enclosure, the nandimantapa, the natyamantapa, the kalyana-
mantapa and such other additions. Thus, since thirteenth century the
temple compounds were studded with the additions of Kalyanamantapa,
Utsavamantapa, Yagasala, Paka^ala, mathas and the like. The prakara
acquired a towered gate known as Gopura. The Unichuttumala (SII-V-
25) i .e . around the prikara became popular by the same time.
/As a counter action against the thick spread of Saivism and to
be predecessors of Ramanuja Charya's propagation of Vaishnavism, temples
dedicated to the Cult of Lord Vishnu, belonging to the Vaikhanasa and
Pahcharatra igama siddhantas, were constructed at important centres like
Tirupati, Tiruchanur and Bapatla, beginning tenth century AD (RA-BSL-
1973).
136
Thus, Bapatla, forms to be one of the earliest centres of Vaishnavistn
and is the earliest temple dedicated to Lord Bhavaiiarayara in Andhra
D e ^ , datable to sixth century AD, on the traditional grounds and tenth
century on epigraphical records and architectural style.
Following Bapatla (Plates BPTL 1 to 21 ) the earliest centre of Lord
Bh^variarayana, eleven more temples were constructed in the area under
study, v iz ., BhSVadevarapalli (Plates BDPL 1 to 08) in Krishna District,
Sarpavaram (Plates SRPM 1 to 11) in East Godavari District, Ponnoor (Plates
PONR 1 to 16 ) in Guntur District, Pedaganjam (Plates PGJM 1 to 08) in
Prakasam District, Inumella (Plates INML 1 to 09) in Guntur District,
PadarthI (Plates PDRT 1 to 06) in Prakasam District, Pattisam (Plates
PTSM 1 to 07) in West Godavari District, Narasaraopet (Plates NRPT 1
to 03) in GuntCir District, ChinnaganJ^ (Plates CGJM 1 to 05) in Prakasam
District, Amrthalur (Platles AMLR 1 to 07) in Guntur District and Sabbaya-
gudem (Plates SBGM 1 to 03) in Krishna District, from tenth to early
twentieth century in a chronological order.
Of the twelve temples, the temple at Padarthi in Prakasam district
is in ruins (Plates PDRT-1 to 6). The temple at Pattisam in the mid
or river Godavari, in East GSdavari district (Plates PTSM 1 to 7);<ind
the temple at Narasaraopet in Guntur District (Plates NRPT 1 to 3 ), are
thoroughly renovated and remodelled. The temples at Chinnaganjam in
Prakasam district (Plates CGJM 1 to 5 ); and at Amruthalur in Guntur
district (Plates AMLR 1 to 7 ) ; are seem to be constructed during the
early nineteenth century: and the temple at Sabbayagudam in Krishna
district (Plates SBGM 1 to 3) is constructed during the second quarter
137
of the twentieth century.
Following is the detailed account of each of the twelve temples,
individually, beginning with the description of: temple complex, the
horizontal axial of ground plan, the vertical structure, the exterior
embellishments, the interior decorative motifs, the door ways, and the
medium of construction, commencing with Bapatla, the earliest temple,
ending with the temple constructed in the second quarter of the twentieth
century at Sabbiyagudem, Krishna District.
BAPATLA (BPTL 1 to 21):
Bapatla, the head quarters of the taluq named after the town,
Guntur District, lies at 15° 55' on north latitude and at 80° 30' on east
longitude on the main line of New Delhi - Madras, Calcutta - Madras
broad guage railway line.
The temple of Lord Bhavanariyana has been declared taken by
the Archaeoogical Survey of British India in the category of the Ancient
Protected Monuments under Section 3(1) of the Ancient Monuments Preservation
Act VII of 1904, vide the Government Order No . 686 dated 24th August
1907, of the Madras Presidency.
As recorded in the Document No: 2222 of 1916 (VSRS No. 535 of
Bapatla), a draft agreement, under section 5 of Act VII of 1904, was
excuted on the 6th day of July 1916, between Desiraju Ranga ^o w , Sthanam
Rama Yogi and others, the trustees of Sri Bhavanarayana Swami Temple,
Bapatla town, Bapatla taluq, Guntur District and the Survey about the
maintenance of the temple.
According to the Annual Reports of the ASI, 1930-34 (pt.I p .40),
the Bhavanarayana temple at Bapatla, Guntur district, is of considerable
138
interest on the account of the Inscriptions on the walls of the sanctum,
containing a Vishnu image and on the outer faces of the enclosure walls
of the main building. Since these walls were bulging out the then Superin
tendent had got them repaired and rebuilt during the year 1930-31 with
lime concrete and plaster: on the recommendations of the report submitted
by A.H.Longhurst (Annual Reports of ASI 1929-30 p. 46).
Further the monument had been thoroughly studied by Messrs.Abdul
Azeez in 1957, M. Venkatramayya in 1960, Dr .I.K .Sarm a in 1973 6 1975
and A .S .R .i^janeyulu in 1975 and Dr.K .Krishna Murthy in 1977 of ASI.
TEMPLE COMPLEX:
The temple complex, as today, comprises an outer prakara wall,
entered through a gateway, facing south, leading to the inner prakara
wall of the main temple. The main temple, thus situated in the centre
of the court yard, is rectangular in shape (BPTL-1).
GiliR5puram: This is the main entrance into the outer enclosure, to
be studied in two sections - the lower and the upper structures. The
lower structure is approximately 20 ' high and built with rectangular
and square granite stones. The approximate width of the square shaped
lower structure is 15' and the thickness of the walls is about 2 ' . On
either side of the carpet way of nearly 20 ' , there are two raised plat
forms, and on one of them there is a drum used for Prabhata Bheri
i .e . , the Drums of Awakening. Constructed with lime mortar and bricks,
covered with lime plaster, the Galigopuram is devided into four storeys
supported by wooden beams, rafters and pillars. Every storey has
an opening on all sides. However, no permanent steps are provided
to climb upto the sikhara, where the Kalasas are placed. The tower
139
is crowned with a Sila type pavillion at both ends shaped as Chaityas
and five brass Kalasas are found placed atop. There are lime mortar
sculptures of devotees and various episodes from epics and legends are
neatly moulded and arranged on the four storeys, bifurcating each storey
by lime mortar band (BPTL-2).
Outer Prakara wall (Clockwise Direction): Next to Galigopuram, there
is an unused room. Adjacent to this room, there is a hall supported
by 24 pillars made of black granite stone, where the Vahanas or the
Vehicles of the Lord, such as Hamsa Vahana. Gajav^ana, Aswavahana,
/_Seshavahana etc., made of wood and covered by a brass sheet are
stored. According to the temple records there was an old store house
for the Vahanas. In 1920s the same was converted into shops to raise
funds for the temple. The present Vahanasala is a later construction.
Next to the mantapa there is a modern hall and a lumber room. At
a short distance along the wall facing west, there is a big rectangular
godown on the north-west corner. About 10' away from the north-east
corner, in the middle of the court yard, there is a well, still in use,
said to have been constructed during the Chola period, and there is
another brick well, constructed by a devotee in 1920s. Along the eastern
wall, near the Galigopuram, there is another room in the north-east
corner, being used as the Office of the Executive Officer of the Endowments
Department, Government of Andhra Pradesh.
Dhwajasthambhas: The special feature of this temple is there are two
Dhwajasthambhas (flag posts) known as Jiva Dhwaja and Keertl Dhwaja.
According to the Sthalapurana in the 1803AD, the East India Company
had put the Circars area consisting of Bapatla region to auction and
140
Sri Raja Vasireddi Vehkatidri Naidu, Manne Sultan had purchased the
same. Having visited the temple, Sri Naidu had understood the importance
of the temple and erected two Dhwajasthambhas granting donations for
the maintenance of the temple.
Below the Kirtidhwaja, there are images of Garuda (facing north)
/ _and Sri Veeranjaneya Swamy. Added, one foot away from Jivadhwaja
there is a mutilated lime stone pillar approximately one metre high
in vertical position with a conical top, having traces of Brahmi letters
datable to the early centuries of Christian era, the contents of which
are undecipherable. However the carwings of a Nagamuchilinda and the
seated miniature Buddha atop are identifiable (BPTL-3).
Ground Plan: The temple consists of a Garbhagrha, an Arthamantapa,
a Mahamantapa, enclosed by a Prakara. The temple being of sandhara
type, a wide circumambulatory path is provided in between the inner
prakara and the garbhagrha, elevated to a height of 8 ". There is a
sixteen square pillared hall, extended in the later period, facing east.
The Mahamantapa in between the main temple and the prakara is supported
by 82 circular and square pillars.
Along the inner prikara in the clockwise direction, there are cham
bers for-God Anjaneya and Garuda Murthy (the vehicle of Lord Vishnu);
Lord Kesava; the bed chamber of Lord Bhavanarayana; the chamber housing
the image of Goddess Rajya Lakshmi, the divine consort of Lord Bhava
narayana (on the south-east corner): Sage Vikhanasa attended by Bhrgu,
Marichi, Atri, Kasyapa: Lord Ranganayaka in the reclining posture on
Adiseshu, with Lord Brahma from the navel, demons Madhu and Kaitabha
and King Krimikantha, the founder of the temple (on the north-west corner);
141
Goddess Andal Tayaru (in the chamber earlier in which the image of
Lord Someswara was installed). Added, almost attached to the sanctum,
on right side, there are chambers housing Lord Kodanda Rama along
with Goddess Seetha and L a k sh m a ^ : Lord Jwala Nrsimha (exactly opposite
to the chamber of Lord Kesava) and the Twelve Alwars of Vaishnavaite
Pantheon. In addition there are two closed rooms on either side of
the extended mantapa.
Vertical: The vertical plan of the Garbhagrha consists of an Adhisthana,
Sthambhavarga, Prastara, Urdhwabhumi, Prastara, Sikhara and a Stupi.
The adhisthana belonging to the padabandha type, forming the typical
architectural feature of the day, consists of an upana, jagati, patta
kumuda, kampa, kantha, kampa, pattika and vajana, respectively. The
floor level of the garbhagrha is maintained to the top of the jagati.
The sthambha varga does not contain the vedika or the Aswapada. The
pilasters have become thinner by two inches with two inches projection
from the original wall, consisting the plain shaft ( i .e . , the ^hambha-
varga), followed by MuttumOla, idaikattu, kala^a, kudam, phalikapadma,
veerakantha and podika. There are five devakoshthas - two on the
either sides of the arthamantapa, one on each of the garbhagrha and
on the rear. The devakoshtas are flanked by two pilasters, sans architec
tural features, topped by a vedi like varga, finally crowned by a lata-
torana. However none of the devakoshtas preserve any images.
The prastara i .e . the roof of the temple, consists of an uttara,
valabhi (i .e . bhutamala)^ kampa. kapota and prativarga, respectively.
Above the roof level there is a two storied Vimana, called Sundara Vimana.
It is a typical early Chola Vimana retaining the Pallava affiliations as
142
could be seen in the tiers of the so-called Dharmaraja ratha at Mahabali-
puram, consisting of a karnakilta, prastara, vimanakantha, s^ikhara and
a stupi. The karnakuta is arranged horizontally, with a karnakuta,
a hara, a sala, a hara and a kuta respectively. The dwarfish features
of the karnakuta resemble the karnakutas on the monolithic rathas and• •
the structural temples at Mahabalipuram. A two pillared panjara crowned
by a nasika is arranged on the either sides of the s^ala in the central
(mid) portion of hara. The karnakuta consists of vedika, sthambha,
uttara, padma, kap5ta, sikhara and kalasa respectively.
The second storey of the Vimana begins following a wall portion
to a height of one and half feet is seen with pilasters. The details
over the second storey are similar to the first storey, beginning prastara,
constituting the same vargas as detailed in the prastara portion of the
main temple. The bhadra projection at salabh'Sga is visible and the
kapota part is adorned by four nasis on each side. The vimanakantha
is in octogonal shape belonging to the Dravida order, with eight niches
for each quadrent, surmounted by nasis. There are four cochant lions
placed on the top of the vyalavali instead of Vedika. The sikhara is
also executed in octogonal bell shape. Mahapadmas are carved one above
/ _the other to the top of Sikhara. Finally there is a Stupi or a finial.
EXTERIOR EMBELLISHMENTS
The pillars are executed in square and circular orders. There
are a minimum of sculptures, such as decorative kirtimukhas (Oozing
pearl festoons), the dancing figures and the standing couples roughly
executed on the shaft of the pilasters, beneath the kalasa. The top
of the koshta is adorned by latit5rana variety with artistic festoons,
creepers and (some other) geometrical designs.
143
There are human figures along with the hamsamaJa and the bhutamala
layers of the ekatala The seated dwarfish male figures are carved
with diminishing iconographic features. On the southern portion of the
bhutamala band, there is small image of God Vinayaka in the sitting posture,
carved in the mid of the koshta portion of the same layer. There are
eight mythical vyalas, one on each side, in the prativarga of the same
prastara, resembling the lions found on the Dharmaraja ratha datable
to early pallava period.
INTERIOR DECORATIVE MOTIFS
In the arthamantapa portion, there are four pillars, out of which
two are semi-circular and the two at the centre are square, with all
accessories of a pillar. The ceilings of the mahamantapa, arthamantapa
and the garbhagrha does not contain any architectural designs. However
the ceiling of the garbhagrha is supported by the wooden rafters resembling
the earlier roof pattern. There is a thin layer of wooden planks on
the wooden rafters covering the ceiling of the garbhagrha*
DOORWAYS
The doorways of the arthamantapa (BPTL-0 8 ) are decorated with
purnaghatas on the bottom side of the voga (right) and bhoea (left)
sthambhas. The bhuvanea (sill) is plain, whereas the patanea (lintel)
contains the Gajalakshmi motif at the lalatabimba (dedicatory block).
The yoga and bhoaa sthambhas are carved with latapatra motifs.
MEDIUM OF CONSTRUCTION
The temple is executed in khondalite stone available in plenty
in the area under study. The monolithic pillars, the accessories of
the pillars including the temple vargams are executed in the same stone.
144
Wood seems to have been used as beams for the roof in the sanctum,
indicating the use of wood for structures in the earlier periods. Thus,
the temple purely is a pumsa temple.
BHAVADEVARAPALLI (BDPL 1 to 08)
Bhavadevarapalli named after Lord Bhavanarayana, the principal
diety of the village, is situated at 15° 80' on north latitude and 79°
85' on east longitude in the Avanigadda taluq, Krishna District.
TEMPLE COMPLEX
The temple as today consists of a superstructure, the mantapa,
the galigopuram. The other constructions found are the additions made
in the later periods extending upto the modern times. The temple on
the stylistic and architectural grounds is next to the temple at Bapatla,
datable to the later half of the eleventh century CE. The physical
description of the temple is as follows:
Ground Plan: Axially the temple consists of a garbhagrha, an arthamantapa
and a mahamantapa. On the two sides of the arthamantapa, there are
two chambers dedicated to God Anjaneya on the left and Goddess Rajya-
lakshmi, the divine consort of Lord Bhavanarayana on the right. The
main entrance is on the east, and another entrance is also provided
on the south of mahamantapa.
Vertical: The temple has a padabandha type of adhishthana, with fine
mouldings of padavarga, prastara, karnakuta, prastara, karnakuta, prastara,
vedika, kantha, sikhara and stupi, respectively. The adhisthana consists
of an upana, padmajagati, tripattakumuda, flanked by kantha and pattika.
The same mouldings continued from garbhagrha to mahamantapa. The
padavargam is simple devoid of details on the pilasters. The pilasters
contain only phalikapadma and podika. At the centre of the salabhaga.
145
there are three simple koshthas on the three sides of garbhagrha and
two koshthas on the south and north wallsof mahamantapa. The prastara
contains an uttara, a kampa, bhutamala (i .e . valabhi), kampa, kapota
and an adhopadma in place of vyalas. The bhutamala portion is carved
with doves seeming to be resting in their nests. The karnaldita is arranged
with kuta, panjara, sala and koshthas, respectively, on all sides.
In its vertical direction the karnakuta resembles an ekatala vimana,
with vedika, kantha, kapota, sikhara and kalasa. The prastara of the
first storey i .e . urdhwabhumi is simply arranged without any decorative
motifs. The next member is again a karnakuta without vedika, in a
shorter form, followed by a prastara forming the second storey. The
vedika is projected out from kantha (known as nirgavamu and neevramu)
with kantha, kampa, adhopadma and vajana mouldings. The (vimana)
kantha is round with vimana devatas, executed probably in modern times.
^ - /The Sikhara has an uttara, kapota, padma, sikhara and three mahapadmas,
one above the other. The top member finial i .e . , Stupi is made out
of brass.
EXTERIOR EMBELLISHMENTS
The swastibhadra jalaka (i .e . window) on the north of Mahamantapa
is a noteworthy feature. The koshtha is toped by prastara and sikhara.
There are three finials arranged on the top of the koshtapanjara.
The three storeyed vlmaha is without nasis on the prastara portion.
There are sculptures of Vaishnavaite pantheon. Four lions, each with
two bodies and a single head are resting on the corners of vedika.
INTERIOR DECORATIVE MOTIFS
There are four pillars in the centre of mahamantapa. The aswapada
of the pillar contains an upana, padma and kampa. The shaft being
146
plain, the middle portion ^between the shaft and the central block is round
with an octogonal patta in the mid portion. The central block is also
square without sculptures. The kala^a has four keertimukha motifs on
the four corners. There is a band on the neck portion of the kalasa.
Dadi, the circular disc, an independent member, is placed over a kalasa
under the neatly executed phalika padma. The podikas are in the plus
form to receive the beams from sides.
DOORWAYS: The doorways are simple and plain without s^akhas and any
decorative motifs.
MEDIUM OF CONSTRUCTION: It is a napumsaka temple, built with red
sand stone upto the roof level, and the superstructure in brick. The
roof is laid with lime concrete.
SARPAVARAM (SRPM 1 to 11):
Sarpavaram, lies at 16° 60' on north latitude and at 82° 14' on
east longitude, about thre6 kilometres west of Kakinada township, on
the Samarlakota - Kakinada branch line of Vijayawada - Calcutta main
railway line. Lord Bhavanarayana is the principal deity of the village.
TEMPLE COMPLEX ■ ^
147
The temple of Lord Bh5vanarayai)a is the perfect blend of Chalukya-
Chola architectural styles. -The vimana over the sanctum and the lofty
tower on the north with eight stories reminds the Chola temples at Kanchi-
puram. The main shrine is situated at the centre of the temple complex
and the other deities are placed in individual chambers in the quadrangular
hall. The galigopuram to the north of the temple is an example of the
workmanship of the nineteenth century artists of Andhra. The high gali-
gopuram to the north, has eight storeys and the images on the first storey
are carved in three rows, on the next storey in two rows and on the
upper one in one row and in each row there are about 40 to 60 images.
On the upper row the images of Gods and Goddesses are carved reflecting
a striking contrast between the divine beings and human beings. Chatur-
bhuja Rajyalakshmi is worshipped in a small temple in the left corner
of the compound. Manawala Mahamuni and a few other alwars are also
worshipped in the temple complex.
Ground Plan: The temple facing east consists of a garbhagrha, an antarala,
and a mahamantapa. In front of the mahamanta there is a sixteen pillared
another square mantapa annexed on the east. The temple is well enclosed
by a prakara wall having an inner mantapa for pradakshinapatha. On
the west there is a stepped entrance leading to the shrine of Patala Bhava-
n^ayana, said to be older than the main temple. The shrine facing west
on the north-east corner is housing Goddess Rajyalakshmi. On the south
east corner there are three empty chambers used for storing the vehicles.
Vertical: The temple is raised on an upapitha of vedibhadra type and
has an adhishtana, padavarga, prastara and a double storied vimana.
The adhisthana belonging to the padabandha type comprises an upana,
jagati, kumuda, kantha, ■ : pattika and vajana. The padavarga devoid
of vidika has pilasters at regular intervals. There are five koshthas
- two in antarala and three on the three sides of the garbhagrha. The
pilaster is devoid of aswapada. The top portion has a kalasa, kudam,
phalikapadma and podika. Of the five koshthas only the three on the
garbhagrha preserve the images and the remaining two are arranged with
jalakas i .e . , windows.
148
The prastaranga has an uttara, kampa, valabhi, vajana, kapota
and prativarga. The valabhi contains hamsamalas and bhutamalas in addition
to some erotic figures. The nasis are arranged in the kapota portion
to the centre of the wall-pilasters (the kudya sthambhas). Some klrti-
mukhas are also found carved in the prativarga. The Vimana, having
its height double to normalcy belongs to sarvakamika variety. Vertically,
the Vimana has a karnakuta, prastara again karnakuta (dwarfish), Vedika
and sikhara. On the vedika there are four lions to the four corners
on the four sides of the sikhara. In the centre of the mahanai^is there
are some Vaishanvaite figures belonging to the late medieaval periods.
However the architect does not seem to have followed any standard code
of architecuture except adopting the principles of temple architecture
prevalent during the period of construction.
EXTERIOR EMBELLISHMENTS
The upapitha is richly decorated with architectural features and
projections. The pillars and kapotas (of the upapithas) and prativarga
in the same upapitha are neatly executed. The adhishthana is of simple
padabandha variety. Excepting the pillar projections in the kantha portion,
there are no noteworthy architectural embellishments. In the padavarga,
the pilasters are simple in rectangular shape, with a few mouldings on
the top such as kalasa, phalika etc., in the plain order. The devakoshthas
arranged in the padavarga portion are supported by two pillars crowned
by prastara and then followed by a miniature Sikhara and salas. The
prastara of the devakoshthas are decorated with hanging buds. In the
prastara portioA excepting the uttara and vajana, the rest are decorated
to minimum. For example in the bhutamala portion there are series of
hamsas in the base relief. Some bhuta figures as bharavahakas (of the
149
vima^na) and some erotic figures are executed in the normal artistic manner.
In the kapota portion there are six bhadra nasis. The prativarga contains
the pratimukhas at irregular intervals. The first storey of the temple
is horizontally arranged with kuta, panjara, sala and again panjara and
kuta. To the top of the first storey there is an elevated prastara suppor
ted by six pillars on each side. The next member is again a karnakuta
having the same series as described in the first storey. To the top
of the first storey there does not seem to be any prastara. On the vedika
portion there are four lions facing four corners with two bodies and one
head are artistically executed. In the central bhadra projected portion
there are four seated Vaishnavaite sculptures surmounted by four kirti-
mukhas. The central block of the pillars over the lion heads is executed
with hamsas, geomertical designs and other padma motifs. The lion pillars
are placed on aswapadas. The another interesting feature is that there
is a full blossomed lotus in place of kudam over the kalasa which is
typical.
INTERIOR EMBELLISHMENTS
The sthambhas in the mukha mantapal^mahamantapa are richly decorated
with artistic designs, sculptures such as dancing figures and Vaishnavaite
themes (the Dasavataras of Lord Vishnu) are carved on the pillars.
The pillars have aswapada, sthambha bhaga (having figures on all the
four sides), pattabhaga again sthambhabhaga with sculptural details. The
kalasa, kudam and phaika-padma are executed in a faceted way. However
the pillars are not in uniform order. Tlie interesting feature in
this temple is that the simhapada (the lion motif) pillars erected on
the southern side of the mahamantapa, seems either to be the continuation
150
of the late Pallava tradition figured in the Dharmarija ratha in the Mahiba-
lipuram, executed by Jayasimha the early Pallava king. One such other
example is seen at Malleswaram village in Mahabtibnagar district in the
two storied mantapa supported by lions in the ground floor. The ceiling
in the main temple is laid on wooden rafters with lime concrete in vogue
during the period under study. The prakira mantapa raised on an ashtanga
upapitha is supported by pillars in regular intervals all around the temple.
The prakara wall has an adhishtana with upana, padmajagati, kumuda
and an adhopadma. Excepting the adhishthana made in red sand stone,
the superstructure is constructed with brick mortar.
DOORWAYS
The doorways of the temple are plain with simple designs. The
bhuvanga (sill) at the main entrance has some little decorations. The
rest are very plain.
MEDIUM OF CONSTRUCTION
The temple is of napumsaka variety, constructed with red sandstone
from adhishtana to prastara and the vimana portion with brick and lime
mortar. The pillars in the mantapa are monoliths in the same red sand
stone. The adhishtana of the prakara wall is constructed with red sand
stone whereas the superstructure is with brick. The roof of the main
temple is laid on the wooden rafters as in the case of other temples.
The roof of the mantapas are arranged with slabs or red sandstone.
PONNOOR(PONR 1 to 16):
Ponnoor^ headquarters of the tluq named after the town, Guntur District
is situated at 16° 05 ' on north latitude and at 80° 34' on east longitude
on the main broad gauge railway route. The connecting railway station
is Nidu(m)brolu about 4 kms away from Ponnoor town; thus, Nidu(m)brolu
151
and Ponnoor today are twin towns. Ponnoor is about 50 Kms from Bapatla
on north direction.
TEMPLE COMPLEX
The sacred temple of Lord Bhavanarayana with Sundara Valli Rajya-
lakshmi facing east is on the banks of the river (sacred pond) Tungabhadra
T
in the shape of a Chakram (disc); hence it is called Chakrakshetram.
There is a shrine dedicated to Lord Chennakesava to the north of the
Goshtimantapam. Panniddar A l w ^ s , the famous Vaishnavaite saints are
to the left of the Lord. In addition there are temples dedicated to Lord
Lakshmi Narasimha, Kasi Viswe^wara and Goddess Rajya Lakshmi, to the
south, north and south-east directions, respectively, to the shrine of
Lord Bhavanarayana. In front of the eastern tower (galigopuram) of the
temple there is a shrine of God Anjaneya with a black stone image of
37' height; the image of Garuda, the divine vehice of Lord Vishnu; a
50' high dhwajasthambha. There is a Brahmasarassu containing the waters
of river Tungabhadra, to thft east of the temple. The temple on the
architectural features and epigraphical records is a construction of later
Chola period datable to 12-th century CE. The physical description of
the temple is as follows: ̂ ■
Ground Plan: On plan, the temple consists of'a garbhagrha, an antarala,
an arthamantapa and a mahamfentapa enclosed by a p r ^ a r a wall. Unlike
the temple at Bapatla, an- aintarala, in between the garbhagrha and an
arthamantapa is introduced marking the increase in worshipping practices
meant for the conduct of ' vt^rious religious rituals. The temple belongs
to the sandhara type, with: a pradakshina patha in between the temple
and the prakara, supported* i by four pillars on a raised padmavedi.
152
Crossing the prakara wall there is a sixteen pillared mantapa, seeming
to be a later addition. To the north-east com er, inside the pradakshiija
patha, there are two small chambers, dedicated to Lord Chennakesawa
and Sri Ramanuja Charya. A n d , on the south-east corner there are two
small chambers without images.
Vertical: Vertically the temple has the following components: an adhishtana,
padavarga and a prastara to the enclosure wall. On the top of prastara
there is a series of sala, hara, kuta and koshtha with regular intervals
vis-a-vis. The vimana portion of the temple has a karnakuta, a prastara,
a vedika, a vimanakantha, a s^ikhara and a stupi.
Adhishthina: Placed on a padma motif, the adhishtana is of padabandha
type. The mouldings of the adhisthana are in the sequence of an upana,
jagati, kampa, kantha, kampa, patta, kumuda, kantha (flanked by kampas)
pattika and vajina. The shtambhavargam, raised on a richly decorated
vedika, contain kantha, kampa, padma and vajina, is arranged with pilasters
of kumbhapanjara motif. The pilasters of the wall does not contain a^wapada
and the sthambha is seen without any decorations upto the idaikattu,
further followed by kalasa, dadi, kudam phalika, padma and pushpapoidika.
In the recesses of the hara portion there are kumbhapanjara motifs oozing
festoons on each side with a pilaster developing from the kumbha, topped
by a nasi. To the central portioti of the sala, there are devakoshthas
supported by two pillars. The crowing member is r©si. The festoons
oozing from the mouths of the kTrtimukhas are in the to^rana motif. Podika,
the top most member of the padavarga, which is absent in other temples
(such as at Bapatla, Bhavadevarapali, Sarpavaram etc), is a pushpapodika,
of noteworth importance.
153
Prastara: The prastara contains an uttarak , kampa , valabhi, vajana,
kapota and vyalavari. The bhutamala is decorated with some geometrical
designs. The bottom of the kapota is carved with bulging bubbles, VySla,
the top most portion is richly decorated with hamsas, vyalas and some
other floral designs.
Vimana: Following components are found in the Vimana:
a) Karnakuta: The karnakuta is raised on a simple vedika, sthambhavarga,
prastara, kantha and a small sikhara. It is more or less the replica
of the original vimana.
b) Prastara: The next important member is prastara with uttara, valabhi,
kapota and vyalavarga. There are six nasis on each side of the kapota
portion. The vy'ajam in the vyalavarga is decorated with vyalas and
makaras, the mythical einimals, mocking at each other.
c) Vedika: The vimana devatas are placed over the vedika. It is in
circular form from vedi to sikhara.
d) Kantha: The kantha is only a plain member devoid of decorations.
e) Sikhara: The sikhara is composed of an uttara, a kampa, a kapota,
an urdhwapadma, a sikhara and a mahapadma. There are eight niches
on the eight cardinal directions.
f) Stupi; The stupi is a brass kalasa, with a Sudarsana Chakra, on
the top of it.
EXTERIOR EMBELLISHMENTS
The mouldings of the adhishtana are richly decorated and neatly
executed. The karna and bhadra projections are seen in the karnakuta
and mukhasala portions. The kumbha panjara is attractive in the recesses
154
of hara portions. The koshthas are also supported by two pilasters
topped by nasi and other associated designs. The ghanadwaras i .e . the
koshtahs are devoid of the prakara wall. On the north, there is one
relief figure of a boar, the royal emblem of the Imperial Cholas. The
figure is carved in relief (ardhachitra) in symmetrical order. On the
south of the northern outer prakara wall, there is another relief of a
monkey looking upwards, and bn the south-east corner God Agni is sculpted
seated on a ram, with two faces and eight hands with scruk (the rectangular
laddie) and surva (the round ;laddie). On the cardinal points of the vedika
there are eight Vaishnavaite sculptures in the vimana portion.
INTERIOR DECORATIVE M O T II^ !
The mahamantapa is supported by four neatly finished pillars. The aswapada
is a simple one with adhopadma and fluted angles are shown on the shaft
portion. The roofs of the garbhagrha and the mahamantapa are executed
in the lupa order with diagonal slabs arranged on the beams carrying
square slabs, numbering four, to hold the roof of the slab. The roof
of the pradakshina patha is- flat, unlike the early Chalukyan temples
(Alampur) with sloped roofs.'
DOORWAYS " ^
The doorframe of the igarbhagrha and the arthamantapa are plain
whereas the doorways at the‘ eMrance is decorative. The vertical doorframes
are carved with two dwarap&las on either sides at the bottom. The
top of the vertical doorframes is arranged with latapatra, vertical geometri
cal lines and a pillar like mbtif in the centre of the doorjamb and the
adhopadma motif to the wall side. The top member of the doorframe
(the patanga) is carved M t h latapatra motif and a prastara. The centre
of the lintel is adorned with Gajalakshmi motif in a miniature sala supported
by two pilars as seen in irf^y Kakateeyan temples (eg. Nidikonda, Hanuma-
155
Unlike the temple at Bapatla built of totally stone (categorised
as pumsaka temple), the temple at Ponnooris built upto the superstructure
in stone, followed by bricks upto vimana (categorised as napumsaka temple).
The roof of the pradakshinapatha and the mantapa are laid with lime
mortar using brick bats.
PEDAGANJ^ (PGJM 1 to 08) :
Pedaganjam is about three kilometres towards east from the Uppugun-
duru railway station on the Vijayawada - Madras broad gauge railway line,
lying at 15° 25' on the north latitude and 18° 09' on the east longitude,
in the Chirala taluq of Prakas^am district.
The temple facing east has an outer prakara entered through a gateway,
leading to the inner p r ^ a r a . About four metres from the galigopuram
in the mid of the court yard there is a huge dhwjasthambha. On the
south-west corner, facing east, there is a chamber housing Goddess Lakshmi
and on the left of the temple, on the north, there is a shrine housing
God Anjaneya in huge form. The temple belongs to sahdhara variety with
a pradakshninapatha in the closed order, having a garbhagrha, an arthaman-
tapa, a mahamantapa and another 16 pillared open mantapa probably of
a later period. The pillars in the inner mantapa are also devoid of
artistic features but the pillars outside of the mahimantapa reveal the
typical Cholan features as attested by the epigraphical records datable
to 13th century CE.
The Vimana^ a double storied structure, with an adhishtana padavarga,
prastara and a vimana, datable to the Chola period on architectural grounds,
has a karnakuta. panjara and a sala. To the top of the kar^akuta there
156
MEDIUM OF CONSTRUCTION
is a prastara in a sloppy manner. The vedika, the kantha and the sllkhara
are in octogonal i .e . Dravidian order. The closed pradakshina patha
is constructed with massive stone blocks datable to later times.
157
The constructional activities continued upto the Vijayanagara period
as evidenced by the incomplete dorways of the gopura on the south.
The doorways and the feminine figures, the padma motif on the vertical
doorjambs indicate the Vijayanagara style. The temple, upto the superstruc
ture is constructed with stone followed by brick upto the sikhara. Thus,
the temple belongs to napumsaka variety.
INUMELIA (INML 1 to 09):
Inumella, a tiny village in the Tpur taluq of Guntur district, lies
at 15° 18' on north latitude and at 80® 05' on east longitude, is reached
only by infrequent buse service from Narasaraopet.
The temple facing west is entered through the galigopuram. In the
clockwise direction there is a 5mall shrine housing God Anjaneya in the
chamber constructed at a height for the purpose. Next to the shrine
of God ^ ja n e y a , there is a huge inscribed boulder badly mutilated.
On the north there are two chambers housing the loose sculptures. On
the south-west corner, facing east, there is a big room storing the vehicles
of Lord Bhavanarayana• At the centre of the court yard, there is a
dhwajasthambha.
On plan the temple consists of a garbhagrha, an arthamantapa an^'d
a mahamantapa. Vertically the temple has an upapitha, a plain padavarga
and a superstructure with modern architectural features^ owing to a number
of renovations took place as attested by the boulder inscription dated
to 18th century CE. On stylistic features and architectural grounds,
such as pillars and ceiling, the temple is datable to Kakateeyan period.
The pillars that support the roof iin the mahaamantapa have neatly executed
aswapadas. The square pillars with a circular disc, ghataphalika and
padma are in the typical Kakateeyan order, as seen in the. Tripurantakam
temple. In the patta (the angular portion of the pillar) there are figures
of swans, musicians and certain other designs. The serpent hoods on
the podika are noteworthy. The mahamantapa is arranged with crossed
diagonal stones one above the other, as found in many of the Kakateeyan
temples, (eg ., Bejjamki). In the first course of the diagonals, there
are yali figures executed in vertical manner. In the bottom portion of
the "Konavattamulu" the figures of swans are carved in realistic and
architectural manner. In the chadaravatta portion there are freizes of
swans on all four sides. The top portion of the ceiling is arranged
within a single stone with a sixteen petalled flower and four kirtimukhas
are executed in thefour concerns. The inverted buds in the bottom portion
of the konavatta and the ceiling slab are carved uniformly.
The doorways of the entrance to the main temple are executed
in the typical Kakateeyan order. The vertical frames over the sill and
the lintel are. intricately carved with fine workmanship. The dwarapalas
on both sides of the doorway stand to be the examples of iconographic
features of the day. There is an "ashtadala padma" design in the lalata-
bimba portion, carved as in many Kakateeyan temples as at Ghanaput,
Hanumakonda etc. The entrance at the ardhamantapa is plain with two
dwarapalas on either sides. The lintel preserves the Gajalakshmi motif.
The temple belongs to the napumsaka variety, for it is built of stones
upto the superstructure level followed by bricks upto the sikhara.
PADARTHl (PORT 1 to 6)
Pidarthi is a small hamlet on the sea coast, eleven kilometres
from Ongole railway station, on the east. There is a moufossil service
from Ongole to Kothapatniiii village, and Padarthi is 3 Kms from Kothapatnam
village on the north lying at 15° 26' on the north latitude and at 80°
11' on the east longitude.
According to the local legend the temple of Lord Bhavanarayana
was a living structure 50 years ago. Due to some holocaust the residents
of the village Padarthi had migrated 3 Kms away towards south and have
constructed a new village by name Kothapatnam. At present the temple
is completely in ruins. The garbhagrha has been excavated by thieves
and the mulavigraha has been broken. As seen through the ruins, the
temple facing south on plan has a garbhagrha, an ardhamantapa. There
is a (broken) dhwajasthambha and the galigopura seems to have
been constructed in the recent times before the temple is abondoned.
Vertically the temple has a padabandha type of adhishthana,
a padavarga, prastara, karnakuta, pratara and sikhara. The mouldings
of the adhishthana have an upana, jagati, kumuda, kantha and pattika.
The padavarga portion has four pilasters with simple designs. The pras
tara has diminiished artistic features. The first storey has an elevated
karnakuta, panjara, sala with a rectangular sikhara, again followed by
a panjara and karnakuta resembling the architectural features of late Vijaya-
nagara temples. The vimaha sikhara is in octogonal plan of Dravidian
order, with koshtas on the eight corners. Further details cannot be
studied since the sikhara is broken.
159
Externally there are stucco decorations in the prastara viiriana
portions. The erotic figure in stucco is noteworthy. The doorways
of the arthamantapa are later additions eventhough there are two dwarapa-
las and a Gajalakshmi motif in the lalatabimba. On the right side of
the temple complex there is a mantapa with a chandra^ila (now broken)
might have been used for the conduct of religious services. On the
left of the temple complex beyond the outer prakara wall there is a
pond (now in ruins) perhaps used like koneru or a pushkarani for the
sacred bath of the Lord. The temple belongs to " stree variety” i .e . ,
built completely of bricks.
PATTISAM (PTSM 1 to 7)
Pattisam is picturesquely situated on Devakutaparvatham overlook
ing the Papi hills in the heart of river Gouthami, a tributary of river
Godavari, Pattisam is about 3 Kms from Polavaram and 25 Kms from
Kovvoor railway station, lying at 17° 13' on the north latitude and at
81° 33' on the eaast longitude.;
/Pattisam being a Saivaite and a Vaishnavaite centre as well,
the temples of this Kshetram are of Lord Virabhadra in the form of Linga
with the marks of two arms ;that appear to have embraced the lingam;
/Goddess Bhadrakali, in the awe inspiring female form; and of Lord Sita
Rama, Added, there is a small temple containing two stone images of
women called anistri (a widow) and punistri (woman with a living hus
band) . The temple of Lord BHavanarayana facing west, on plan, consists
of a garbhagraha, an artha mantapa and a maha mantapa. The mahamantapa
is a closed one with two entrances on west and south. As such there
does not exist any prakara wall.
160
The temple has a three storied vimana of nagara order datable
to twelfth and thirteen centuries CE, on the stylistic grounds, having
a small upapitha of vedibhadra type, an adhishthana, padavarga, prastara
and s^ikhara. In the adharasila of upapitha the mouldings of upana,
padma, kantha, kampa and kapota are noticed. The adhishthana belongs
to manchaka variety without kumuda and has an upana, padmajagati, kampa,
kantha and kapota. The padavarga starts with a vecli, aswapada, sthambha-
bhaga, kala^a, kudu, phalikapadma and podika. The prastara contains
an uttara, valabhi, kapota and prativarga.
The first storey has a karnakuta, a hara and a sala vis- a-
vis. In the hara portion there are two koshthas as well in karnakuta
and mukhasala portions, crowned by keertimukhas. The prastara of the
first storey has the same mouldings those are found in the prastara as
described earlier. The second storey also closely follows the same archi
tectural pattern i .e . , kutas and koshthas as arranged in the first storey.
The sikhara has a broad vedika, a vimana kantha, a sikhara and a stupi,
the finial. The mouldings of the upapitha are executed beautifully.
In adhishthana portion the projections are noticed at the karnakuta, hara
and sala portions. The padavarga has half-relief pillars in the wall
portion having the usual members of aswapada, sthambha, kuda, phalika
and podika. The recessed hara has along keertimukha placed on a pillar.
The three koshthas resembling a miniature shrine, are provided on the
three sides of the sanctum. The prastara of the first storey, contains
dikpalas In stucco mounted on their vehicles. Four lions are placed
on the comers of the vedika. At the centre of the s^ikhara four keerti
mukhas are found on the four sides. The mantapa, supported by four
pillars, contains the architectural features of the pilasters that are in
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the wall portion of the garbhagraha. The temple is constructed entirely
with brick and lime mortar, excepting the pillars and the roof slab
made of stone, belonging to stree variety .
NARA5ARA0PET (NRPT 1 TO 3)
Earlier known to be "Atluru", Narasarabpet, named after "Narasa
Ravu", the father of Malraju Venkata Gunda Narayani ravu, a philonthophist
of the areaj lies at 16° 16' on north latitude and at 80° 03' on east longi
tude. According to the traditional accounts related to the temple, in
1784 CE, the same philonthrophist who was also the local ruler, having
heard of the greatness of the Lord Bhavanarayana had constructed a temple
in Narasaraopet. The temple as today, is a totally renovated construction.
The galigopuram of the temple is facing east, whereas the Lord along
with Goddess Sri Devi and Bhu Devi is facing south, housed in a small
room. In the mid of the hall there is a dhwjasthambha. The thorough
renovations made to the temple did not leave anything of architectural
importance providing clues for the study of the historical styles, even
in the absence of any epigraphical records.
CHINNAGANJAM (CGJM 1 to 05)
Chinnaganjam^ situated at 15° 43' on the north latitude and
at 80° 16' on the east longitude, is a small village in between Chirala
and Ongole bus rout^ and on the Vijayawada-Madras main broadguage
railway line, in the Chirala taluq, Ongole district. As is seen today
the temple of Lord Bhavanarayana is facing east with a galigopuram and
a dhwajasthambham in the mid of the courtyard, in the ruined condition.
The temple has a garbhagraha, an antarala and a mahamantapa. Vertically
the temple has aggraded and undistinguishable mouldings mostly convered
by earth. The prastara, karnakuta, prastara and the sikhara refer to
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late Vijayanagara structures. The mahamantapa is a closed one, roughly
executed with rubbled masonary. There are eight koshthas to the eight
corners in the vimanakantha datable to post-Vijayanagara period. The
image of Goddess R'ajyalakshmi is housed in a chamber on the right of
the chamber of Lord BhavanSrayana. According to the narrations of
the Pujari,the temple was fully renovated about 150 years ago by a local
philonthrophist. Adjacent to the dhwajasthambha there is an inscribed
stone datable to thirteenth and fourteenth centuries CE, on Palaeographic
grounds, which is undecipherable.
AMRTHALURU <AMLR 1 to 07)
/Amrthaluru, named after the principal Saivaite deity of the
village Lord Amrtheswara, is situated about 40 Kms from Tenali, on the
south at 16° 07' on north latitude and at 80° 42' on east latitude, in
the Tenali taluq, Guntur District.
The temple complex at Amrthalur houses the images of Lord
_ / _ _
Madanagopala, Lord Sita Ram in addition to Lord Bhavanarayana in indivi
dual shrines. All the temples in the complex are completely modem
structures datable to the early part of the nineteenth century CE. The
temple of Lord Bhavanarayana facing east has a garbhagrha, an antarala,
and a mahamantapa. Vertically, the temple has a plain upapitha, and a
plain padavarga, prastara, karnakuta, prastara, vedika, kantha, sikhara
and stupi. The padavarga and the adhishthana are devoid of any worth
studying features of architecture. But the mouldings of the prastara
imitate the Chola features. The vimanakantha and sikhara are circular• *
and belong to vesara style. The doorways are also of the very modem
period. The image of Goddess Rajyalakshmi is housed in a chamber
left to the Lord. These temples are built of brick and lime mortar,
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hence classifiable under Stree temple .
Sabbayagudem, situated at 16® 50' on the north latitude and
at 80° 15' on the east longitude, is about 10 kms in the north near Nandi-
gama on the Vijayawada-Hyderabad. national highway, in Krishna District.
The temple dedicated to Lord Bhavanarayana is purely a contemporary
construction of 1940s. As narrated by the Chirman of the Temple Trust
Board, the temple was constructed, fillingup the vacant convex land in
the mid of the village. The temple has an outer prakara wall, entered
through the northern gateway. In the mid of the court yard, there is
a dhwajasthambha and a small chamber housing the image of God Hanuman.
The image of Lord Bhavanarayana is housed in a small square cell with
a four pillared square mantapa. Neither the garbhagrha nor the square
mantapa contain any architectural features of worth studying.
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SABBAYAGUDEM (SBGM 1 to 03)