CHAPTER TWO

Review of Literature

The purpose of this quasi experimental study is to compare commitment to activity in a

personal fitness class to a narrative based personal fitness class in a college population at a public

northwest university.

Problem of Physical Inactivity

Millions of deaths per year are associated with physical inactivity and a sedentary life

style, which is a major precursor to becoming overweight and obese. Overweight and obesity

are now among the top 10 leading causes of death and disability in the world (WHO, 2005).

Sedentary lifestyles are thought to be the largest reason for obesity reaching epidemic

proportions in the United States with 30% of the adult population classifying as obese. Children

and adolescents are also afflicted by the epidemic with an estimated 16% considered overweight.

Overweight and obesity increase one’s risk of developing health complications such as

cardiovascular disease, cancer, high blood pressure, joint pain and type 2 diabetes (Centers for

Disease Control, 2005b). Regular physical activity can prevent and improve many of these

chronic conditions in all populations, young, old, male, female and so forth (CDC, 2005b;

USDHHS, 2002; WHO, 2005). This review of literature will outline the popular current

methods used to encourage physical activity and their flaws, as well as the issue of increasing

sedentary lifestyles, and provide a recommendation of a theory new to the community of

physical activity and exercise. The purpose of this quasi-experimental study is to compare

commitment to activity in a personal fitness class to a narrative based personal fitness class in a

college population at a public northwest university.

Prudential Exercise

Organizations such as the American College of Sports Medicine and the Centers for

Disease Control have established public health recommendations for physical activity

recommending an accumulation of 30 minutes of moderate to intense physical activity a day

(CDC, 1999). Physical educators, doctors, and public health announcements all promote

physical activity and educate the public about the need to participate regularly. These sources all

provide what is known as prudential reasons for participating in physical activity. The prudential

approach to exercise stresses the attainment of cardiorespiratory fitness, strength gains,

flexibility objectives, weight management, and improvement or maintenance of health. This

approach appeals to the rational nature of humans by telling individuals they should participate

in physical activity because it is the smart or right thing to do; science has proven that exercise is

simply good for you (Kretchmar, 1994). This rationalism has been historically used to secure the

attainment of exercise goals and objectives. Physical educators use this approach to encourage

their clients and students to adhere to exercise programs. Do X activity Y days a week for a

given amount of time and you will look good and lose weight, keep ills at bay, and improve your

overall quality of life (Rickel, 2005). Though logical, the prudential approach to exercise is

failing our nation as reflected by the growing population of overweight and obese individuals

who chose to sit on the couch versus a bicycle in their spare time. It is apparent the prudential

approach to regular exercise is not effective and the need for a new approach to halt the obesity

epidemic is pressing.

Problem of Prudential Exercise

Prudential exercise has led to goal driven and objective-oriented exercise prescriptions

designed to improve multiple health measures such as cardiovascular fitness, disease prevention,

stress reduction, and weight management. The prudential approach is effective for some people

but not as many people as we would hope (Kretchmar, 2001). Many of the modes of exercise

chosen to attain these goals and objectives are disconnected culturally and have little or no

relevance in day-to-day lives of the clients and students being encouraged to participate.

Physical education classes frequently choose to eliminate certain sports, such as softball, from

the curriculum because they are not viewed as making considerable contribution to the overall

fitness levels of the student. However, students may find no cultural or personal meaning in the

activities that are seen as acceptable for physical education, which results in poor participation

and a lack of continued interest in the activities beyond the class (Kretchmar, 1994).

Affective Approach to Exercise Adherence

The affective approach to exercise adherence is another popular method used to

encourage exercise adherence, which suggests people should exercise because it is just plain fun

(Kretchmar, 2000). The affective or “fun” approach to exercise adherence has been used to

encourage regular participation in school physical education programs, recreation organizations

for adults and children, as well as, group fitness classes. Fun is a quality found most often in

play, which is an innate behavior seen in children. When acted on, play results in continual

desire to run, jump, and play games (Fink, 1995). A child’s nature to play frequently results in

more than a sufficient amount of daily physical activity. The desire to play does not leave us as

we become adults. During the transition from childhood to adulthood the affective approach to

exercise adherence fails us as play is slowly transformed into what it was never meant to be: a

duty or work. Playful acts by their very nature are free, out of the ordinary activities,

participated in with out intentions of producing tangible goods (Huizinga, 2002).

Once a person reaches adulthood, they become a part of the modern do it all, production-

focused culture, which allows little room for such free unproductive activities such as play. Play

becomes a duty seen as a productive activity in the form of a “workout” (Kretchmar 2001). The

feeling of duty produced by the term “workout” immediately eliminates the attractive free nature

of physically active play. This phenomenon begins in school physical education, where teachers

are like drill instructors, demanding lines to be formed and grading a student’s participation and

skill level in a game or activity (Kretchmar, 1994). Once we reach adulthood play is completely

engulfed by the goals and objectives of prudential exercise (Fink, 1995). So much so that playful

activity or “play outs” are now termed “workouts” to appeal to our cultural demand of

productivity which is seen as necessary to achieve goals and objectives (Kretchmar, 1994). Once

this occurs people realize that fun no longer resides in play and thus play is sought elsewhere

through less physically active activities (Kretchmar, 2001). The magnitude of the transformation

of our “play outs” to “workouts” through prudential exercise is exemplified in a Calvin and

Hobbs cartoon when his father explains why grown-ups do not play as children do.

Calvin asks his dad, How come grown-ups don’t go out to play? His father

replies, Grown-ups can only justify playing outside by calling it exercise, doing it

when they’d rather not, and keeping records to qualify their performance. That

sounds like a job, Calvin interjects. Except you don’t get paid, says, Dad. Calvin

then closes in on his conclusion. So play is worse than work. Calvin’s father,

now sitting in a chair with a forlorn look on his face agrees. Being a grown-up is

tough (Watterson, B. as cited in Kretchmar, 2001, p. 321).

Present Day Sedentary Lifestyles

The increasing rates of overweight and obese individuals are due in large part to

increasingly sedentary lifestyle. As our lifestyles become increasingly sedentary we increase our

chances of morbidity and mortality from many chronic diseases (CDC, 2005b; USDHHS, 2002;

WHO, 2005). Several influencing factors have been identified as contributors to the steady

decline in regular physical activity, such as a decrease in manual labor, modern technological

conveniences, and increase in sedentary entertainment.

Manual labor has decreased significantly since the time of our hunting and gathering

ancestors. The typical energy expenditure levels of our ancestral relatives are estimated to be

about one third as great as their energy intake. Today’s energy balance ratio is much higher with

many societies, consuming 2100 K/cal a day and only expelling 300 K/cal a day, through

physical activity, resulting in an energy consumption 7 time greater than energy expenditure

(Saris, et at., 2003). Advances in the civilization of the human species have eliminated the need

to hunt and gather by placing our necessary resources in convenient locations such as

supermarkets and other retail businesses. However, these resources were originally made

available through several hours of manual human labor, much of which has now been eliminated

through technological advances in machinery. Though these advances improve production

through efficiency, they contribute to a sedentary life style.

A more recent study that exemplifies the effects of replacing what was previously done

manually with more efficient machinery, examines the farming way of life in an Old Order

Amish community (Bassett Jr., Schneider, & Huntington, 2004). This community does not use

the modern conveniences of technology for any of their daily activities. The daily chores

required to maintain their land and the resources they harvest result in daily energy expenditures

needed to maintain weight and prevent non-communicable diseases. Furthermore, they consume

three impeccably healthy meals a day that include fruits and vegetables and do not snack

between meals. The women in this community may spend all day preparing from scratch their

meals, which are when totaled are composed of 5, 000 K/cal and do not make any attempt to

reduce the total amount of fats or carbohydrates. Despite these large feasts, Amish people show

a low rate of obesity, which is attributed to their regular physical activity attained through the

manual labor of house keeping and farming. Members in the Amish community have never

tasted the processed foods from fast food restaurants that many Americans consume daily and do

not snack while watching television or talking on the phone. Most Americans are modernized

individuals who would find it hard to live the farming lifestyle of the Amish. However,”… the

bottom line is that they as a group have a four percent obesity rate compared to thirty one percent

in the general U.S. population.” (Rickel, 2005, p. 18).

Physical Inactivity Built into Cities and Communities

Technology provides individuals with several other modern conveniences, which further

decrease levels of daily physical activity. The structure of many communities and cities has been

engineered to provide effective traffic flow and speedy public transportation methods, while

simultaneously eliminating safe pedestrian and bike routes. Our increasing dependence on

vehicles and use of labor saving devices at work further decrease daily physical activity

(Mourey, McGinnis, & Michael, 2003). Several investigations on the amount of accessible parks

and green space largely affect the amount of physical activity members of a community regularly

engage (Chanam & Moudon, 2004; Zlot & Schmid, 2005a, 2005b). Unfortunately, parks and

other green spaces are either not considered when a city is developing or were once prevalent but

have been paved due to a demand of the growing city which needs more business space or

parking.

Scientific evidence shows that physical activity done at a moderate-intensity level can

produce a myriad of health benefits (USDHHS, 1996 as cited in CDC, 2005b). Many buildings

that house multiple businesses are designed in a manner that eliminates simple ways to achieve

regular physical activity through out the work day. Long windowless hallways and stairwells do

not stimulate a person who has been sitting in a cubical all day to take the stairs or the long way

to the bathroom on a break. Parking garages complete with elevators, are located in close

proximity to buildings, which are meant to be convenient and improve time efficiency as people

rush to work. The conveniences these things have to offer are typically thought to be an

improvement to daily life. However, increasing convenience also further decreases the

dwindling opportunities for physical activity at work places already void of manual labor (S.K.

Stoll, personal communication, November 16th, 2005). It is apparent that alterations in the design

of communities and workplaces would make it possible for adults to accumulate the

recommended 30 minutes of moderate-intense physical activity each day of their work week as

recommended by CDC and ACSM (CDC, 1999) to produce important health benefits.

Health benefits can be attained from moderate physical activity through leisure time

activities such as a round of golf or a stroll through the park. However, 26% of adults are not

active at all in their leisure time (CDC, 2005b). The National Health Interview survey shows

that in 1997-1998 nearly four in ten adults reported no participation in leisure time activities at

all (USDHHS, 2002). The decline in leisure time activities may be attributed to two factors: a

moral commitment to work that has formed habits that limit leisure or play time and the

discovery of “fun” activities that do not require physical discomfort that may result from

participation in exercise (Fink, 1995; Kretchmar, 2001). A large concern is the physical

inactivity of children because of the possible ramifications it may have on the future of our

nation’s health. More than a third of young people in grades 9–12 do not regularly engage in

vigorous physical activity (CDC, 2005b). In 1999, 43% of adolescents ages 14 to 18 watched

television more than two hours a day (Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System, CDC,

NCCDPHP, 1999, as cited in USDHHS, 2002). Video games, interactive DVDs computer

games, and television programs cater to males, and females, of all ages and different

socioeconomic classes. Technology, again, has provided both adults and children with endless

entertainment options that have them returning to the couch on a daily basis. If movies,

television, and video games to not appeal to you, it is now possible to spend the day shopping for

clothing and groceries from the comfort of your computer chair (Safeway Corporation, 2005;

American Eagle Outfitters, 2005).

Meaning and Activity

Meaning is found in every facet of life. It is unavoidable. It can be found in both active

and sedentary activities. Sitting at a computer in a cubical five days a week, and sitting in front

of the television two hours a day have meaning just as going for a swim twice a week or going to

football practice 5 days a week. Meanings are present in things as simple as recognizing your

pet is a dog. Given this broad explanation of meaning, it is apparent that meaning is a constant

in life whether we are active or sedentary (Kretchmar, 2001). As people live their lives, which

are full of meaning, many are in search of more than just living. Most people are in search of the

“good life” and strive to attain it on a daily basis. Many individuals include meaningfulness as a

necessity of pursuing the “good life” as well as health and longevity. Health is frequently listed

as a key part of attaining the good life, (Kretchmar, 1994, 2001) however; many of our actions

might suggest otherwise. Why do those who seek the good life display unhealthy behavior

despite listing health as an important component of a good life? It is possible that individuals

understand the meaning of health but have not found true meaningfulness of healthy actions in

their life. “The good life must be meaningful or have a purpose” (Kretchmar, 1994, p. 224).

Thus in our search for the good life we must be aware of the difference between meaning and

meaningful.

When someone tries to force us to do something, such as exercise, the broad meaning is

instantly apparent (the teacher wants me to participate). Before we participate we search for the

meaning of the activity to understand why we should participate. To ask “why” is to search for

meaningfulness. It has been suggested that unless a person finds an activity to be of importance,

useful, entertaining or gratifying they will not continue to participate (Kretchmar, 2001).

However, given the above examples of our current sedentary lifestyles it is obvious that one does

not always need to know the purpose of the activity to continue to participate. People do not

drive their cars to and from work and land on the couch every evening because they find the

activity meaningful. These actions are socially supported, and practiced daily, but they have

become meaningless habits rather than meaningful events in life (Kretchmar, 2001). This too

can be said of the habitual exerciser who drives three blocks to the gym and searches for one of

the last remaining parking spots before running on the treadmill for 30 minute while watching

television.

Given these two examples of habitual activity, it could be concluded that if bad habits can

be formed without meaningfulness, then healthy physical activity should be able to be formed

into a habitual daily activity as well. However, many of daily life activities are practiced

habitually and socially supported through policies such as rules, regulations and laws, which are

enforced through notable punishment such as fines or jail time. For example, without thinking,

most people fasten their seatbelts before backing out of their driveway. However, earlier

generations of drivers struggled with forming the habit despite having the knowledge of the life

saving capabilities of seatbelts. The creation and enforcement of the seatbelt law helped may

people form a seatbelt wearing habit if they were not already in the habit using seatbelts

(Kretchmar, 2001). Unfortunately, The United States has no policies addressing the attainment

of regular physical activity, such as requiring the use of a bicycle as transportation if one lives

only ten minutes from their work site (Kretchmar, 1994). Some businesses and smaller cities try

to support the use of active transportation (Zolt & Schmid, 2005a, 2005b), and several people

may walk or ride their bike for a period of time, but eventually return to the use of their vehicles.

In recreational games, if we do not care for the way a game is played, we modify so that we do

find enjoyment or simply chose not to play (Kretchmar, 1994 p. 216). We treat the game of life

in a similar manner; if we do not care for an activity, such as riding our bicycle to work, we

make modifications or eliminate the activity all together by taking the bus or driving our car to

work.

Forming a Personal Connection to Exercise

Due to our lack of social policies that might enforce physical activity and the lack of

environments supportive of physical activity for adolescents, it is unlikely enough people will

form habitual exercise to prevent or end the overweight and obesity epidemic. The need to

discover true meaningfulness in physical activity beyond reasons of prudence and enjoyment has

never been greater as we see no signs of a decline in our national obesity rates (Rickel, 2005).

As mentioned previously, meaning is found in most things in our daily lives. Because meaning is

a constant in life, it is difficult for a person to distinguish the difference between something with

meaning and something truly meaningful. Many individuals do not realize the depths and

numerous forms of meaningfulness or what it is like to have had a poignant experience

(Kretchmar, 2000). Furthermore, most people likely have never had a truly moving experience

with physical activity.

Common experiences with exercise are found in recreation centers and gyms where

people perform their daily 30 minutes of cardiovascular exercise as they “zone out” to music

playing on the radio or by watching a near-by television. These individuals frequently state,

“Listening to music and or watching the television help me to forget about the work that I am

doing so the time passes faster”. Our educational experiences in physical activity are

predominantly focused on how many sets and reps we can perform or on the acquisition of a

particular movement skill in an effort to “make the grade”. Kretchmar (1997, p. 247) argues, “…

Our lives, our exercise lives, should be more than a number of isolated events that have nothing

more in common than their contribution to making it”. These examples as well as the exercise

experiences of most people, rarely promote the development of a personal, spiritual, or truly

moving experience in exercise (Rickel, 2005). R. Scott Kretchmar (2000) argues that once a

person has a truly meaningful experience in exercise, they will be hooked and forever committed

to that activity. True meaningfulness in exercise can be discovered through very personal

experiences with physical activity as described by Craig Lambert in his book, Mind over Water:

Lessons on Life from the Art of Rowing (1998).

The boat is perfectly level. Set up beautifully, we skim the surface on an invisible

laser beam running from horizon to horizon. There is no friction: we ride the

natural cadence of our strokes in a continuous cycle…Rushing water bubbles

under our hull, as if a mountain brook buried with in the Charles flows directly

beneath us….Rowers have a word for this frictionless state: swing. The

experience of swing is what hooks people on rowing. The appetite for swing is

limitless (Lambert, 1998, p. 124-5).

Kretchmar (2000) suggests, like Lambert’s experience with rowing, once a person

experiences poignancy in their exercise, they will be hooked and crave future experiences in

exercise that stimulate the same moving, spiritual, and enlightening feelings. They become a

part of a moving team or rather a part of a moving culture. Exercise is no longer what they do; it

is who they are (Kretchmar, 2000).

Researchers have shown a personal connection with exercise can be formed and

maintained throughout a lifetime. A qualitative analysis (Kulge, 2002) of the phenomenological

exercise experiences of women 65 and older, who are currently physically active and have been

for the better part of their lives, discusses such a connection. The investigators found, “Being

physically active was viewed by the participants as central to livelihood later in life: it was

intricately related to their sense of well-being, their independence, and who they were (Kulge,

2002, p.9).” These older women have remained physical activity over the years despite injury

and the physical effects of age simply because it was “…not only a way of life, it is [their] life”

(Kulge, 2002, p.10). Similarly, a qualitative study assessed the perceived health benefits of older

adults, living in Hong Kong, who practiced the ancient art of Tai Chi, which is favored by older

populations because of the gentle and soft movements. The focus group discussions held with

the older adults, found in addition to the physical and social health benefits, the older adults

reported practicing Tai Chi, provided meaning and a rhythm to their daily lives (Yau & Packer,

2001).

Given the findings of each of these studies it is clear, not only can one form a personal

connection to exercise, one can also sustain the connection throughout a lifetime. Though these

studies are qualitative and do not provide definitive methods about how to form a personal

connection to exercise, they do provide a window through the eyes of individuals who have had

poignant experiences with exercise and chosen to be a part of the moving culture throughout

their lives into old age. These individuals demonstrate that meaning in exercise, a personal

connection to exercise, truly can create a lifetime commitment to physical activity. They found

meaningfulness and purpose in their physical activity. “One [exercise] event must be connected

to another, and these events must be headed somewhere important…” (Kretchmar, 1994, p. 224).

Each of their exercise experiences were connected to another and lead them to their good life,

which included the key components of health and well-being through continued physical

activity. Physical educators should be inspired by these populations and be asking themselves,

how could physical education programs facilitate the more poignant experiences in physical

activity that will result in the lifetime commitment to exercise we see in these older adults?

Philosophical Theory as a Possible Solution

The previous examples of individuals who have had truly meaningful experiences with

exercise and their lasting commitment to physical activity demonstrate the ability to form a

personal connection to exercise. Physical educators and researchers have tried to replicate what

these life time exercisers have in the lives of inactive people through prudential and affective

means which continue to fail as exercise drop out rates continue to persist. Researchers have

also taken an intellectual approach by informing the public about the need for regular daily

exercise in moderate intensities, to improve general health and well being as well as prevent

disease and disability (CDC, 2005a, 2005b; USDHHS, 2002; WHO, 2005). Several professional

organizations have generated extensive lists of activities, which provide enough physical activity

to reap health benefits if one participates in them daily basis (USDHHS, 2002). Exercise

professionals educate clients and students about the importance of regular exercise and provide

social settings to attain the recommended daily dose of exercise. Americans continue to lead

sedentary lives even though they have been provided a wealth of knowledge recommending an

active lifestyle. Due to the failure of both the prudential, affective, and intellectual approaches to

exercise adherence it is apparent

…We are at a paradoxical stage of having the science that has mostly solved how

to lower risks of Non-Communicable Disease (NCD) and related diseases, but the

quest to inspire people to exercise to lower risk lies in a quagmire of how to do so

(Rickel, Stoll & Beller, 2005b, p. 3).

Given this statement, it is thought that exercise philosophers need join with other health and

exercise professionals and take a more active role in the application and solution to exercise

adherence to help bridge the gap between what people know and what they do (Rickel, Stoll &

Beller, 2004b). A common belief among sport philosophers is the problem in exercise adherence

lies in the personal perspective one has with exercise. It has recently been proposed facilitation

of the development of a subjective, meaningful exercise philosophy would help people to

commit to physically active lifestyles (Kretchmar, 2000, 2001; Rickel, Stoll, & Beller, 2005a,

2005b)

Generally speaking, philosophy is concerned with… “The big picture that is left out of

more specific areas of knowledge, and help us understand clearly what values should be

important to us”(Progressive Living, 2005). Educators have been using philosophical thinking

for decades to help students reflect on the importance of the skills they are taught and encourage

learning through application of those learned skills; to help them find meaning in their desired

profession (Metheny, 1968; Riley-Doucet & Wilson, 1997).

Philosophy is a more reflective and systematic activity than common sense.

Philosophy raises questions about what we do and why we do it, and goes beyond

individual cases and phenomena to treat questions of a general nature. When

considering the interrelationship of philosophy and activity, it is clear that

philosophy inspires one’s activities, and gives direction to practice. The power of

philosophy lies in its ability to enable individuals to better understand and

appreciate the activities of their everyday life. (Elias & Merriam, 1995, p. 5)

This statement suggests philosophic reflection may have the power to help the sedentary

population find meaning and a true appreciation for regular physical activity. Exercise

philosophers can help facilitate philosophical reflective thinking about exercise, which may help

individuals become inspired by their participation in physical activity. Being inspired by one’s

physical activity will help the formation of a personal, meaningful connection to one’s physical

activity much like Craig Lambert’s (1998) experiences with rowing. Kretchmar, a sports

philosopher, has proposed a life narrative approach to facilitate the formation of a personal

connection to one’s exercise. He suggests the use of philosophic reflective thinking to

incorporate exercise into a person’s life focusing on subjective measures of exercise. Kretchmar

describes a life narrative as “A connected, meaningful stage in the development of a story”- a life

story (Kretchmar, 1997).

Personal Narrative Perspective

As previously mentioned, the historical, prudential and intellectual methods used in

physical education have not successfully facilitated truly meaningful experiences in physical

activity for most of the American population. Given the flaws of these common approaches to

exercise, clearly we must find another way to find meaning in our exercise experiences. The use

of personal narratives to monitor one’s progress and capture underling conceptions of an

individuals life have been used in fields such as teacher education, nursing school education, and

psychological therapy for several years (Carter, 1993; Riley- Doucet & Wilson, 1997), The

narrative perspective suggests that all people “story” their life experiences as a way of

interpreting the information that they collect through their daily experiences. Narratives are not

limited to the higher order thinking of adults. Children also use narratives to make connections

in time and often can more easily explain relationships between events through the use of story

telling (Hoodless, 2002). Each personal narrative we create helps us to form a personal

connection to our experiences by giving our actions and interactions personal meaning. A

narrative life story, just like a fictional book, includes characters and a setting accompanied by a

temporal sequence providing causality and significance (Carter, 1993). A narrative perspective

is defined by Doyle and Carter:

At its core, narrative perspective holds that human beings have a universal

predisposition to ‘story’ their experiences, that is to impose a narrative

interpretation on the information and experience (Doyle & Carter, 2003, p.130)

Storybooks, plays, and movies all have a beginning middle and end, just as the events in

our lives. Our personal narrative connects each event in our life so our ‘story’ also has a

beginning, middle, and end. Given that our life events are all connected, we experience no

isolated events. It has been suggested there also should be no isolated events in our exercising

lives (Kretchmar, 1997; Rickel, 2005). Furthermore Carter (1993) states, the true depths of

meaning in our life events can only be found through story.

This richness and nuance cannot be expressed in definitions, statements of fact of

abstract propositions. It can only be demonstrated or evoked through story

(Carter, 1993, p. 6).

If storying life events allows people to connect each of their experiences and realize the richness

and meaningfulness of them, would it not be possible to story our exercising experiences as

well?

Narrative Learning

Different forms of narrative learning have been successfully used in teacher education as

well as in nursing and other adult education settings. Reflection through journaling is the most

commonly used form of narrative learning among theses settings. Despite different methods of

reflection through journaling, each of these educational settings found journaling to improve the

students learning (Carter, 1993; Riley-Doucet & Wilson, 1997; Doyle & Carter, 2003). Riley-

Doucet & Wilson (1997) suggests the use of reflective journaling in nursing school places

emphasis on the self to promote self-awareness and self-evaluation. It helps students to

internalize the skills they provide during patient care, making each of their practical experiences

more autonomous and thus more personal (Riley-Doucet & Wilson, 1997). For these nursing

students, composing their narrative story though reflective journaling facilitated a more personal

and meaningful connection with the skills they were learning to their actual practice. Carter

(1993) suggests that expert teachers have formed a thorough understanding of all facets of

teaching through the formation of narrative stories, which separates their teaching ability from a

novice teacher who have not had the opportunity to create a personal narrative with teaching.

This demonstrates the formation of a life narrative facilitates the integration of theory and

practice through reflection on ones experiences. The addition of philosophic reflection, or

narrative learning, to current prudential, affective, and intellectual approaches to exercise may

help individuals bridge the gap between what they know about exercise and what they actually

do. As Elias & Merriam (1995) state, “…theory without practice leads to empty idealism, and

action without philosophical reflection leads to mindless activism” (p. 5).

Though narrative learning has been successfully used in educational settings pertaining to

nursing and teaching, it has only recently been applied to physical education through a study at a

northwest public university. Rickel (2005) applied a narrative-based exercise philosophy

curriculum to a pilates college activity class. The 9 week course consisted of in-class instruction

that challenged and inspired students to use a new cognitive perception of total body/self through

reflecting on subjective aspects of their exercise. Supplemental online lessons further

encouraged students in their search for meaning in their exercise beyond typical objective

measures were also completed by the pilates class. A kick boxing activity class was used as a

control for the study and received no in class or online narrative-based exercise philosophy

instruction. Both the intervention and control activities classes were pre-tested and post tested

with a tool known as the Rickel Value Inventory (Appendix C), which measures students’

subjective and objective value of exercise through 17 likert-scaled questions. Subjective

meaning in exercise is thought to facilitate truly meaningful or poignant experiences in physical

activity and therefore will be the focus in this review. Results from the study indicated that those

students who participated in the narrative-based exercise philosophy curriculum supplemented

by the online lessons, valued both subjective aspects of their exercise more than they did prior to

the intervention. They also demonstrated a greater subjective value of exercise than the control

group (Rickel, Stoll & Beller, 2004a, 2004b).

The Rickel (2005) study provides strong evidence that subjective value in exercise can be

taught. However, it is necessary to apply this intervention to several other populations both

within a college community and other non- university associated populations to establish the

validity and reliability. Therefore, the present study will investigate the effectiveness of a

narrative based online class in facilitating a personal connection to exercise.