chapter thirteen: conceptualizing terrorism in america

Chapter Thirteen:Chapter Thirteen:

Conceptualizing Terrorism in Conceptualizing Terrorism in AmericaAmerica

Early Studies of Domestic Early Studies of Domestic TerrorismTerrorism

Early Studies of Domestic TerrorismEarly Studies of Domestic Terrorism

H.H.A. Cooper and the National H.H.A. Cooper and the National Advisory CommissionAdvisory Commission Cooper and his coauthors provided Cooper and his coauthors provided

the conceptual framework for the conceptual framework for domestic terrorismdomestic terrorism

They presented a series of They presented a series of recommendations for emergency recommendations for emergency responseresponse

Task Force on Disorders and Task Force on Disorders and TerrorismTerrorism

Ted Robert Gurr and J. Bowyer BellTed Robert Gurr and J. Bowyer Bell Terrorism is a tactic used by the weak to intimidate the Terrorism is a tactic used by the weak to intimidate the

strong and, in turn, used by the strong to repress the weakstrong and, in turn, used by the strong to repress the weak Terrorism in the nineteenth century was primarily aimed at Terrorism in the nineteenth century was primarily aimed at

protecting the status quo and the economic environmentprotecting the status quo and the economic environment Some vigilante actions equaled terrorism, e.g., the Ku Klux Some vigilante actions equaled terrorism, e.g., the Ku Klux

KlanKlan The shift toward left-wing violence was derived from The shift toward left-wing violence was derived from

foreign modelsforeign models Even though the United States has avoided significant Even though the United States has avoided significant

domestic terrorism, both criminals and political activists domestic terrorism, both criminals and political activists have used terrorist tactics on a local levelhave used terrorist tactics on a local level

Nationalistic terrorists from Puerto Rico have been far Nationalistic terrorists from Puerto Rico have been far more successful than revolutionaries at launching terrorist more successful than revolutionaries at launching terrorist campaigns because they have an indigenous base of campaigns because they have an indigenous base of supportsupport


Gurr’s three types of terrorismGurr’s three types of terrorism Vigilante terrorismVigilante terrorism

The purpose of vigilantes is to defend the The purpose of vigilantes is to defend the status quo or return to the status quo of an status quo or return to the status quo of an earlier periodearlier period

Insurgent terrorismInsurgent terrorism Insurgent terrorism aims to change political Insurgent terrorism aims to change political

policies through direct threats of action policies through direct threats of action against the governmentagainst the government

Transnational terrorismTransnational terrorism Transnational terrorism occurs when Transnational terrorism occurs when

nonindigenous terrorists cross national nonindigenous terrorists cross national boardersboarders


The Problem of The Problem of Conceptualizing Terrorism Conceptualizing Terrorism

in the United Statesin the United States

Reasons police departments have not prepared for Reasons police departments have not prepared for terrorismterrorism American police officers do not spend a lot of time American police officers do not spend a lot of time

thinking about terrorism; A number of U.S. law thinking about terrorism; A number of U.S. law enforcement agencies remain focused on local enforcement agencies remain focused on local issuesissues

Although U.S. law enforcement officers routinely Although U.S. law enforcement officers routinely deal with terrorism, they call it something elsedeal with terrorism, they call it something else

Even after September 11 most domestic terrorism Even after September 11 most domestic terrorism goes unnoticedgoes unnoticed William Dyson has identified nearly three William Dyson has identified nearly three

hundred terrorist incidents between September hundred terrorist incidents between September 11, 2001 and December 200411, 2001 and December 2004

Terrorism developed slowly in America. Terrorists Terrorism developed slowly in America. Terrorists did not routinely target the United States until 1982did not routinely target the United States until 1982

The Problem of Conceptualizing The Problem of Conceptualizing Terrorism in the United StatesTerrorism in the United States

The Problem of Conceptualizing The Problem of Conceptualizing Terrorism in the United StatesTerrorism in the United States

Hate crimeHate crime The term hate crime is frequently The term hate crime is frequently

used with terrorismused with terrorism Hate crime is a legal definition, not Hate crime is a legal definition, not

a manifestation of terrorisma manifestation of terrorism Hate crime is a specific violation of Hate crime is a specific violation of

the lawthe law

Classifying Terrorism in Classifying Terrorism in Criminal JusticeCriminal Justice

Classifying Terrorism in Criminal Classifying Terrorism in Criminal JusticeJustice

Issues police and security forces should keep Issues police and security forces should keep in mindin mind A beat police officer is usually the first A beat police officer is usually the first

responder to domestic terrorismresponder to domestic terrorism The investigation techniques used in large, The investigation techniques used in large,

sensationalized terrorist incidents are the sensationalized terrorist incidents are the same techniques a local agency would use same techniques a local agency would use to investigate a stink bomb placed in the to investigate a stink bomb placed in the locker room of a high school football teamlocker room of a high school football team

Counterterrorism depends on the Counterterrorism depends on the fundamentalsfundamentals


Spectrum of conflictSpectrum of conflict The spectrum was a continuum The spectrum was a continuum

that ranged from low-intensity that ranged from low-intensity conflict to full-scale war. This scale conflict to full-scale war. This scale probably more correctly reflects probably more correctly reflects the human condition than the the human condition than the belief that we can either be at war belief that we can either be at war or at peace. It also helps us or at peace. It also helps us understand terrorismunderstand terrorism


White’s typologyWhite’s typology White’s typology is a typology to train military White’s typology is a typology to train military

and police personnel in counterterrorismand police personnel in counterterrorism The first measure shows the level of activityThe first measure shows the level of activity The second line represents the type of activityThe second line represents the type of activity Generally, the larger a group, the greater its Generally, the larger a group, the greater its

potential for terrorist violencepotential for terrorist violence Terrorists are free to move between the Terrorists are free to move between the

criminal and political boundariescriminal and political boundaries The final continuum illustrates the type of The final continuum illustrates the type of

responseresponse


The National Advisory Commission on The National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, Task Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, Task Force on Disorders and TerrorismForce on Disorders and Terrorism The report cites several types of terrorism The report cites several types of terrorism Political terrorism is described as violent Political terrorism is described as violent

criminal behavior designed to produce criminal behavior designed to produce fear for political outcomes fear for political outcomes

Nonpolitical terrorism is designed simply Nonpolitical terrorism is designed simply to produce fear; quasi-terrorism involves to produce fear; quasi-terrorism involves nonpolitical terrorist activities during the nonpolitical terrorist activities during the commission of crimescommission of crimes


John Harris and the FBI’s tactical typologyJohn Harris and the FBI’s tactical typology White leftistsWhite leftists Puerto Rican leftistsPuerto Rican leftists Black militantsBlack militants Right-wing extremistsRight-wing extremists Jewish extremistsJewish extremists According to Harris, all domestic terrorist groups, with According to Harris, all domestic terrorist groups, with

the exception of Puerto Rican nationalists, lack an the exception of Puerto Rican nationalists, lack an indigenous base, and they tend to have localized indigenous base, and they tend to have localized ideological bases. Types of groups are generally ideological bases. Types of groups are generally defined by locationdefined by location

American terrorism does not affect all local police American terrorism does not affect all local police agencies in the same manneragencies in the same manner


Domestic Terrorism (DT) and International Terrorism (IT)Domestic Terrorism (DT) and International Terrorism (IT) DT involves violent political extremism, single-issue DT involves violent political extremism, single-issue

terrorism, and lone wolf or berserker activitiesterrorism, and lone wolf or berserker activities IT is defined as threats that originate outside the United IT is defined as threats that originate outside the United

States. The FBI defines activities on the basis of originStates. The FBI defines activities on the basis of origin For DT, political extremism involves violent left- and right-For DT, political extremism involves violent left- and right-

wing extremists. Single issues include violent activities wing extremists. Single issues include violent activities associated with debates over abortion, ecoterrorism, animal associated with debates over abortion, ecoterrorism, animal rights, and genetic engineering. Lone wolves are included in rights, and genetic engineering. Lone wolves are included in the category when their actions are politically motivatedthe category when their actions are politically motivated

IT is composed of three subsets: state-sponsored terrorism, IT is composed of three subsets: state-sponsored terrorism, clearly defined autonomous groups, and Jihadistsclearly defined autonomous groups, and Jihadists


Brent Smith’s categories of terrorist Brent Smith’s categories of terrorist groupsgroups Right-wing extremistsRight-wing extremists

Form a category by themselvesForm a category by themselves Left-wing and single-issue terroristsLeft-wing and single-issue terrorists

Single-issue groups, criminal gangs, Single-issue groups, criminal gangs, ecologists, and old-style leftistsecologists, and old-style leftists

International terroristsInternational terrorists The remaining groupThe remaining group

Smith’s Analysis of Smith’s Analysis of Domestic TerrorismDomestic Terrorism

Smith’s Analysis of Domestic Smith’s Analysis of Domestic TerrorismTerrorism

Difference between the average criminal and Difference between the average criminal and the average terroristthe average terrorist

The factor separating the average criminal The factor separating the average criminal and the average terrorist is motivationand the average terrorist is motivation

Smith’s findingsSmith’s findings American terrorism grew increasingly to a American terrorism grew increasingly to a

high level about 1985, just at the time the high level about 1985, just at the time the government was improving its government was improving its counterterrorist tacticscounterterrorist tactics

Smith believes ecological terrorists have a Smith believes ecological terrorists have a great potential for violence in the futuregreat potential for violence in the future


Difference between American terrorists Difference between American terrorists and their international counterpartsand their international counterparts

Native-born U.S. terrorists tend to be Native-born U.S. terrorists tend to be older than international terrorists, and older than international terrorists, and foreign operatives working in the United foreign operatives working in the United States follow that trendStates follow that trend

FundingFunding Those on both the left and the right Those on both the left and the right

tend to fund themselves through armed tend to fund themselves through armed robberiesrobberies


Smith’s right- and left-wing Smith’s right- and left-wing comparison categoriescomparison categories

Ideology and beliefs about human Ideology and beliefs about human naturenature

Economic viewsEconomic views Geographic bases of supportGeographic bases of support TacticsTactics Selection of targetsSelection of targets


Difference between left- and right-wing terrorismDifference between left- and right-wing terrorism Left-wing terrorists favor Marxism, target the economic Left-wing terrorists favor Marxism, target the economic

status quo, base themselves in urban environments, and status quo, base themselves in urban environments, and select symbolic targets of capitalismselect symbolic targets of capitalism

Right-wing terrorists are vehemently anti-Marxist and Right-wing terrorists are vehemently anti-Marxist and very religious. In addition, they support the economic very religious. In addition, they support the economic system without supporting the distribution of wealth, system without supporting the distribution of wealth, base themselves in rural areas, and focus attacks on base themselves in rural areas, and focus attacks on symbols of governmental authoritysymbols of governmental authority

Left-wing terrorists were more active in the 1980s than Left-wing terrorists were more active in the 1980s than right-wing terroristsright-wing terrorists

Left-wing groups tend to follow the Marighella model of Left-wing groups tend to follow the Marighella model of revolution, whereas right-wing groups stay in fortresses revolution, whereas right-wing groups stay in fortresses in rural areasin rural areas


The May 19 Communist Organization The May 19 Communist Organization (M19CO)(M19CO) The M19CO united several violent The M19CO united several violent

leftists under a common umbrella in leftists under a common umbrella in 19771977

The MC19CO was most active from The MC19CO was most active from 1980 to 19841980 to 1984

By 1989, all members of the M19CO By 1989, all members of the M19CO wither were in prison or were in wither were in prison or were in hidinghiding


United Freedom Front (UFF)United Freedom Front (UFF) The UFF was composed of mainly The UFF was composed of mainly

anti\-Vietnam War activists and anti\-Vietnam War activists and protestorsprotestors

The UFF became infamous for its The UFF became infamous for its ability to bomb American ability to bomb American businessesbusinesses


Ecological terroristsEcological terrorists Evan Mecham Eco-Terrorist Evan Mecham Eco-Terrorist

International ConspiracyInternational Conspiracy Focused on land-use issues, Focused on land-use issues,

attacking developers and attacking developers and loggersloggers

Animal Liberation FrontAnimal Liberation Front Protests the use of animals in Protests the use of animals in

scientific experimentationscientific experimentation


Laws regarding terrorism in the United States Laws regarding terrorism in the United States Laws regarding terrorism in the United States Laws regarding terrorism in the United States

are exceptionally vagueare exceptionally vague International terrorists tend to plead guilty International terrorists tend to plead guilty

more frequently than right-wing and left-wing more frequently than right-wing and left-wing terroriststerrorists

Left-wing terrorists fare the best in court, Left-wing terrorists fare the best in court, whereas few right-wing cases are dismissedwhereas few right-wing cases are dismissed

Limited data indicate terrorists receive Limited data indicate terrorists receive substantially longer sentences than substantially longer sentences than traditional criminalstraditional criminals

Terrorism is a matter of attitudeTerrorism is a matter of attitude

Steven Emerson’s View of Steven Emerson’s View of Jihad and His CriticsJihad and His Critics

Steven Emerson’s View of Jihad Steven Emerson’s View of Jihad and His Criticsand His Critics

Jihad in AmericaJihad in America Jihadist organizations took root in the United Jihadist organizations took root in the United

States during the Soviet-Afghan WarStates during the Soviet-Afghan War Emerson linked the 1993 World Trade Center Emerson linked the 1993 World Trade Center

bombing to the domestic terrorist networks before bombing to the domestic terrorist networks before the government convicted some of their membersthe government convicted some of their members

Once the mujahadeen and their associates came Once the mujahadeen and their associates came to the United States, they found a hospitable to the United States, they found a hospitable environmentenvironment

For the first time in its history, the United States For the first time in its history, the United States housed a terrorist infrastructure that stretched housed a terrorist infrastructure that stretched from the American heartland all the way through from the American heartland all the way through the Middle East to Southeast Asiathe Middle East to Southeast Asia


Abdullah AzzamAbdullah Azzam Emerson credits Abdullah Azzam, one Emerson credits Abdullah Azzam, one

of the founders of al Qaeda, with the of the founders of al Qaeda, with the construction of the financial network construction of the financial network

Azzam understood the vast amount of Azzam understood the vast amount of support available in the United States support available in the United States after helping to establish the Alkifah after helping to establish the Alkifah Refugee Center in New York CityRefugee Center in New York City

The Alkifah Refugee Center’s Arabic The Alkifah Refugee Center’s Arabic letterhead called for holy warletterhead called for holy war


Prominent officials in the domestic jihadProminent officials in the domestic jihad Tamim al-Adnani is the most vigorous Tamim al-Adnani is the most vigorous

recruiter and successful fundraiser among recruiter and successful fundraiser among all the leadersall the leaders

Elsayyid NossairElsayyid Nossair Emerson says the most important holy Emerson says the most important holy

warrior operating in the United States was warrior operating in the United States was Sheik OmarSheik Omar Abdel RahmanAbdel Rahman

Sheik Abdul Wali Zindani, who has been Sheik Abdul Wali Zindani, who has been involved in assassinations and bombings involved in assassinations and bombings around the world, has taken Rahman’s around the world, has taken Rahman’s placeplace


Terrorist groups in the United StatesTerrorist groups in the United States Under the name Aqsa Vision, theIslamic Under the name Aqsa Vision, theIslamic

Association for Palestine (IAP) is Hamas’s Association for Palestine (IAP) is Hamas’s chief propaganda arm in the United States chief propaganda arm in the United States

Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) has a base in Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) has a base in Tampa, Florida Tampa, Florida

Hezbollah also has a network in the Hezbollah also has a network in the countrycountry

Emerson claims to have found more than Emerson claims to have found more than thirty radical Middle Eastern groups in the thirty radical Middle Eastern groups in the United StatesUnited States


John Sugg’s criticism of EmersonJohn Sugg’s criticism of Emerson Sugg believes that Emerson’s conclusions Sugg believes that Emerson’s conclusions

about terrorism are painfully incorrect, about terrorism are painfully incorrect, but the Investigative Project can point to but the Investigative Project can point to the arrest of alleged PIJ members in the arrest of alleged PIJ members in southern Florida as evidence of successsouthern Florida as evidence of success

Ibrahim Hooper’s criticism of EmersonIbrahim Hooper’s criticism of Emerson Hooper believes that Emerson is overly Hooper believes that Emerson is overly

critical of Islam, calling Emerson an critical of Islam, calling Emerson an “Islamophobic”“Islamophobic”


Nihad Awad’s criticism of EmersonNihad Awad’s criticism of Emerson Awad, head of CAIR, attacked Awad, head of CAIR, attacked

Emerson’s research in written Emerson’s research in written testimony in the Senate testimony in the Senate Subcommittee on Terrorism, Subcommittee on Terrorism, Technology, and Homeland Technology, and Homeland Security.Security.

Awad agrees with Hooper’s label Awad agrees with Hooper’s label “Islamophobic”“Islamophobic”

chapter thirteen: conceptualizing terrorism in america

Documents

lawclassifying terrorism

significant domestic

domestic terrorismthey

criminal justiceissues

terrorist tactics

terrorist campaigns

local issuesalthough

law enforcement officers