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Chapter 8

FEUDALJAPAN

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Japan hascontact

with China

Buddhism, Confucianismand Chinese writing

are adopted

710 Theimperial courtis established

at Nara

794 The Heian periodbegins — a time ofcultural and artistic

development

1192 Yoritomo becomes shogun;Japan is ruled by a military style

government; the Mongolsunder Kublai Khan invade Japan

1333 Japanis underimperial

rule for abrief time

1336 Japan has its firstcontact with Europeans;

Christianity arrives in Japan

1543 Portuguesetraders arrive

in Japan

1576 The shogunlessperiod begins

1603 Japan closes its doorto the West; the country

is under military rule

c. 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600c. 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600ADAD

In the period between the eleventh and sixteenth centuries, some features of life in Japan were similar to those in Europe during this time, for example, the development of castles, the part played by the armed warrior and the importance of loyalty to a superior. However, the differences between Japan and Europe at this time were just as important.

• What can we learn about societies and civilisations of the past?

• What have been the legacies of past societies and civilisations?

A student:4.1 describes and explains the nature of history,

the main features of past societies and periods and their legacy

4.5 identifies the meaning, purpose and context of historical sources

4.8 locates, selects and organises relevant information from a number of sources, including ICT, to conduct basic historical research

4.10 selects and uses appropriate oral, written and other forms, including ICT, to communicate effectively about the past.

INQUIRY

Timeline of significant events in Japan’s history

Himeji Castle, Japan, sometimes called the ‘White Heron’ castle due to its white outer walls, was begun in the mid fourteenth century and completed in 1614.

CHAPTER 8: FEUDAL JAPAN

229

artisan: a skilled worker who produces handmade itemsburakumin: a word meaning ‘hamlet (village) people’ that has replaced the more derogatory term eta for those who carry out tasks considered uncleanbushi: the warrior class of Japan, which included shoguns, daimyo and samuraibushido: the way of the warrior; the rules that prescribed the correct behaviour for all samuraidaimyo: the lord of a domain or handomain: the territory ruled by a daimyo; in medieval times there were about 250 domains in Japaneta: an outcast group who, according to the Shinto and Buddhist faiths, did ‘impure work’ such as burial of the deadfeudal: describes the system during the Tokugawa Shogunate when daimyos held their land and castles in return for loyalty to the shogun, and samurai owed their position through loyalty to their daimyohinin: (non-people) referred to beggars, travelling performers and scavengershiragana: set of about 50 phonetic symbols used, in combination with Chinese characters, for writing Japanesekami: spirit beings; a Japanese word applied to anything beautiful or extraordinary — an exceptional tree, mountain, stone or personkoku: a measure of rice equal to about 23 litres of dry rice — enough to feed one person for a year

meditation: a quiet way of concentrating and emptying the mind of all thoughtsmiso: thick paste used in Japanese cooking, made from fermented soya beans, salt and soy saucemoral: a high understanding of good and acceptable behaviourmusket: an old-fashioned hand gun introduced into Japan in the sixteenth century by Portuguese sailorsnirvana: in Buddhism, the attainment of perfect peace and blessednesspalanquin: a sort of couch for transporting passengers, with long poles on each side so that servants could carry it on their shouldersritual: a formal procedureronin: literally ‘wave-man’ — a person tossed about on the sea of life; used to describe a samurai without a daimyo lordsamurai: the warriors of Japan from about the eleventh century until 1876; samurai served their daimyo lords and lived in the castle townsshogun: literally ‘barbarian-subduing-great-general’; the Japanese emperor’s chief military adviser with the duty to protect Japan from foreign invasionshrine: a place of worship

JAPAN: LAND OF MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND MANY BELIEFS

8.1

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Japan is made up of four large islands and overfour thousand small ones. Most people live on thefour main islands — Honshu, Hokkaido, Shikokuand Kyushu. The islands are mountainous,which has made farming difficult. Volcanoes andearthquakes have been part of Japan’s historyand still occur.

Map of Japan’s four main islands and important cities

Pottery vessels appeared in Japan around13 000 BC, making them the earliest examplesof pottery in the world. They are marked withrope-like patterns and the name for this period,Jomon, comes from the Japanese word for rope.The Ainu people in northern Hokkaido aredescended from the original inhabitants. TheJapanese used to look down on the Ainu peopleas ‘primitive’ but in 1997 they were officiallyrecognised as the indigenous (original) inhabit-ants of Japan.

Rice cultivation was introduced in around1000 BC. This resulted in a growth in population,but this in turn led to warfare as different tribestried to define the boundaries of their territory.

Source 8.1.1

Tokyo — capital

1869 to present

Kyoto — capital

794 to 1868

Nara — capital

710 to 794

Kamakura — military capital

of the shoguns

1192 to 1333

S E A

O F

J A P A N

P A C I F I C O C E A N

C H I N A

KO R E A

Hokkaido

Honshu

ShikokuKyushu

0 200 400 kmR U

SS

IA

JA

PA

N

N

JAPAN’S EARLY HISTORY

A new wave of immigrants began to flow intoJapan around 300 BC. A sign of this change wasthe introduction of a new style of reddish potterywith a more sculptured appearance. The newimmigrants also introduced bronze and iron intoJapan and gradually cultivation of rice inpaddies replaced the earlier dry cultivation. Silkproduction began from the first century ADfollowed by developments in glass technologyand metallurgy.

Between AD 450 and AD 700, a wave of cul-tural influences from China transformed Japa-nese society. Around AD 450 the Japaneseadopted the written script of China and, onehundred years later, Buddhism was introducedfrom China. Finally, in the period AD 600–700,Japanese rulers adopted many of the features ofthe Chinese Confucian form of government. Bythis time the population of Japan was alreadyabout 5 million, which was far greater than anyEuropean country of a similar size.

Nature had a special place in the lives of the firstinhabitants of Japan. Inspired by magnificentrivers, snow-covered mountains and mysteriousforests, people began to believe in the kami (spiritbeings) of these places. These beliefs grew into areligion called Shinto or ‘the way of the gods’. TheShinto shrine was a vital place where villagecommunities celebrated the change of seasons,prayed for good harvests or participated in the riteof purification, a ceremony to purify themselvesand wash away physical and moral pollution.

The basic beliefs of Shinto are as follows:• Tradition and the family: Birth, marriage and

other ceremonies related to family life areespecially significant.

• Love of nature: Being in contact with naturemeans being in contact with the gods.

• Physical cleanliness: Taking baths, washing thehands often, rinsing out the mouth are part ofdaily life and are particularly observed invisits to Shinto shrines or sanctuaries.

• Religious festivals: Honouring the spirits is anopportunity for people to come together toenjoy life and each other’s company.

SHINTO — ‘WAY OF THE GODS’


231

The torii of the Itsukushima Shrine. Torii symbolise the separation of the ‘real’ world from the spirit world. They are built near shrines and often in places of natural beauty.

Between the sixth and ninth centuries, Buddhismand Confucianism reached Japan by way of Chinaand Korea. Both these beliefs had a profoundinfluence on Japanese society.

Buddhism began in northern India about 2500years ago when Prince Siddhartha Gautamarealised a way to find nirvana or perfect peace.He became known as the ‘Buddha’, which means‘enlightened one’. His teachings spread graduallyfrom India to most other parts of East Asia.

In Japan, members of the emperor’s court wereamong the first Buddhist converts, but after thetwelfth century, ordinary people increasinglyaccepted the new faith. Many Japanese becameboth Shinto and Buddhist. Shinto was a religionfor everyday events like birth and weddingswhile Buddhism offered spiritual understandingsof death and the world beyond.

Buddhism teaches that humans can achievenirvana by truly knowing ‘Four Noble Truths’:1. All life involves suffering.2. Suffering is caused by desire.3. Desire can be overcome.4. The way to overcome desire is to follow the

‘Eightfold Path’ (see source 8.1.3).Zen is a special form of Buddhism that came to

Japan during the 1100s and 1200s. Zen Buddhistspractise meditation to gain a better under-standing of life and the universe. A personalteacher or ‘master’ plays an important role inhelping followers to achieve new ways of thinking.

Confucianism is not usually regarded as areligion. It is more a set of rules based on the ideasof the Chinese scholar and teacher Confucius (alsodiscussed in chapter 5, page 130).

Source 8.1.2

BUDDHISM, ZEN AND CONFUCIANISM

Confucianism contributed greatly to the devel-opment of social institutions, political organ-isation and education in Japan. Its ideasincluded the principles of loyalty and ‘filial piety’,the belief that children owe a duty to their par-ents and must always obey them. Filial piety alsoapplied to the dutiful relationship between thesamurai warriors and their Japanese lords.

Check your understanding1. Draw a timeline covering the period 1000 BC to

AD 1000. On the timeline place the following events: introduction of dry rice cultivation; new wave of immigrants; silk production; written script introduced; Buddhism arrives; government on Confucian/Chinese model.

2. Match up each of the following statements with one of the four main religions mentioned in this section:(a) the earliest religion of Japan(b) the religion that stressed the role of a ‘master’(c) the religion that came from northern India(d) a set of rules for life rather than a religion.

Using sources1. Study the map in source 8.1.1.

(a) What are the four main islands of Japan?(b) On which island have the capitals since

AD 710 been located?2. Look at source 8.1.3 and read the eight points on

the Noble Eightfold Path.(a) Which three of these points refer to how you

should live in your normal day-to-day existence?(b) Which three points have a focus on meditation

and the way you use your mind?

Worksheets8.1 Japanese religions

Source 8.1.3

The Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism. The wheel represents the cycle of death and rebirth a person must suffer before reaching nirvana (perfect peace).

Knowledge of

the truth

Having the

right values

Saying nothing

to hurt others

Living honestly

and not harming

living things

Holding a

job that

does not

injure othersStruggling to

free your

mind of evil

Controlling

your feelings

and thoughts

Practising

proper

forms of

concentration

12

3

4

56

7

8

EMPERORSAND SHOGUNS

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The earliest written histories of Japan date to theearly eighth century and are a mixture of fact,myth and legend. In these histories, the emperoris said to be descended from the sun goddess. Agrandson of the goddess, Ninigi, settled innorthern Kyushu and held three sacred objects:• a mirror, a symbol of the sun• a sword, discovered in the belly of an eight-

headed serpent• a jewel.They became symbols of the monarchy.

In AD 794, the emperor Kammu moved thecapital from Nara to Heian (modern-day Kyoto),which was to remain the capital for over 1000years. The emperors and their court lived in aluxury not seen in Western European courts untilthe eighteenth century. The splendours of this lifewere described in the world’s earliest novel, TheTale of Genji, written in about 1004 by a lady ofthe court named Murasaki Shikibu (AD 978–c.1016). Most Japanese literature of this time waswritten by women, partly because they made useof the new hiragana script that allowed them towrite in everyday Japanese while men clung tothe more prestigious Chinese characters.

A description of what life was like for the nobility, fromThe Tale of Genji

BEGINNING OF THE HEIAN PERIOD

Source 8.2.1

It was late in the Third Month. Murasaki’s spring garden was coming ever more to life with blossoms and singing birds. Elsewhere spring had departed, said the other ladies, and why did it remain here? Genji thought it a pity that the young women should have only distant glimpses of the moss on the island, a deeper green each day. He had carpenters at work on Chinese pleasure boats, and on the day they were launched he summoned palace musicians for water music. Princes and high courtiers came crowding to hear.Murasaki Shikibu, The Tale of Genji, translated by E. G.

Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle, Tokyo, 1978, p. 418.

Another woman writer of the period was SeiShonagon. In her Pillow Book, she presented theattitudes of some court ladies to nobility on theone hand and commoners on the other. Womenwere so acknowledged as writers that a malewriter Ki No Tsurayuki (869–945) pretendedthat his Tosa Diary was written by a woman.

An extract from the Pillow Book by Sei Shonagon, animperial courtier

To maintain his rule, the emperor needed supportfrom nobles who were sent out to manage theprovinces. The nobles were allowed to have theirown armed guards for protection and these cameto be known as bushi (warriors) or samurai(retainers). Over time the nobles became rich fromcrops grown on their private estates and taxesthey collected and loyalty developed between thenobleman and his samurai.

During the twelfth century, there were strug-gles between members of the imperial family andnobles in the provinces took the opportunity to try

Source 8.2.2

It is hateful when a well-bred young man who is visiting a woman of lower rank calls out her name in such a way as to make everyone realize that he is on familiar terms with her. However well he may know her name, he should slur it slightly as though he had forgotten it.[Sei Shonagon disliked:]

Ugly handwriting on red paper.Snow on the houses of common people. This

is especially regrettable when the moonlight shines down on it.[She liked:]

A letter written on fine green paper . . . attached to a budding willow branch.

A slim, handsome young nobleman in a Court cloak.

A pretty girl casually dressed in a trouser-skirt, over which she wears only a loosely sewn coat.

The Pillow Book of Sei Shonagon, translated byI. Morris, Columbia University Press, New York, 1967.

ORIGINS OF THE SAMURAI AND SHOGUN


233

to seize power. The second half of the twelfth cen-tury was marked by fighting throughout Japan, aswell as natural disasters such as floods, typhoonsand earthquakes. The final victor in 1185 wasMinamoto no Yoritomo (1147–1199).

After his victory, Yoritomo made a decisionthat was to influence Japan’s history up to thepresent day. Instead of making himself emperor,he asked the Imperial Court to recognise hispower with the title seii tai-shogun (barbarian-subduing-great-general) but at the same time theemperor was to keep his symbolic position.

Both people gained by this. The shogun wasgiven legitimacy in his position rather thanbeing recognised only for his military power,while the emperor was allowed to retain some ofhis prestige and given a degree of protection.This also meant that there was a line of divineauthority from the emperor through the shogunto the nobles who were beneath him.

During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,much of Europe and Asia was dominated by theMongolians. The Mongol emperor Kublai Khan(1215–1294) was the grandson of the great Genghis

Source 8.2.3

A Japanese painting showing Minamoto no Yoritomo, who was to become the first shogun, fighting for the first time at the age of 13

THE DIVINE WIND

Khan and ruled Korea and northern China. Fromhere, he turned his attention to Japan.

His first attack was in 1274 on the coast of thesouthern island of Kyushu, which was the areaclosest to Korea, but this attack failed.

In 1281, Kublai Khan sent a much larger forceof about 140 000 men on thousands of ships. TheJapanese had spent the time preparing for a newattack by:• building a stone wall around Hakata Bay• amassing a large number of troops• training these troops in the technique of group

fighting used by the Mongolians (traditionalJapanese fighting was a one-on-one encounter).

The battle waged for seven weeks but wasbrought to an end by a great storm. About half ofthe invaders perished. The Japanese said thatthis typhoon was sent by the gods and theynamed it kamikaze, which meant ‘divine wind’.The same name was used in World War II todescribe Japanese pilots who, like suicidebombers today, loaded their planes with bombsand crashed them into enemy ships.

Check your understanding1. According to legend, what were the three sacred

objects that were passed from the sun goddess to the emperor?

2. Why was the earliest Japanese literature created by women?

3. What did the term ‘shogun’ mean?4. List four reasons why the Japanese were able to

resist the Mongolian invasion.

Using sources1. Study source 8.2.1. What evidence does this source

provide to show:(a) how luxurious life was in the court(b) the influence from China on Japanese life?

2. Read source 8.2.2. What do Sei Shonagon’s comments about snow on roofs indicate about her attitude to ordinary people?

3. Examine the picture of the shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo (source 8.2.3). What clue does the artist give us that this is a person of high rank?

CommunicatingImagine that you are going to write your own ‘Pillow Book’. Follow the style of Sei Shonagon (source 8.2.2) and give descriptive word pictures of things you like and dislike.

Worksheets8.2 Getting to know Japan

CIVIL WAR ANDA NEW SHOGUNATE

8.3

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The defeat of the Mongolian invasion did notbring peace to Japan. There was a brief periodwhen the emperor managed to reassert hispower over the shogun, but during the fif-teenth and sixteenth centuries, Japan wasplunged into a long period of civil war. Thiswas also a period in which Europeansattempted to infiltrate Japan: the Portuguesewere first, followed by the Dutch. The musketsof the Europeans, which were more advancedthan those of the Mongolians, particularlyimpressed some of the warriors. In 1527, thewarlord Odo Nobungaga won a battle in whichhe used 300 musketeers.

Final victory in the civil wars went to anotherwarlord, Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542–1616). In1603, Ieyasu revived the title of shogun,receiving the title from the emperor. The role ofshogun was to remain with the Tokugawafamily until 1868, giving the period its name —the Tokugawa Shogunate.

Ieyasu soon took steps to strengthen his position.The system he developed had some similaritieswith the feudal system in medieval Europe.First, Ieyasu made it clear to the emperor thatthe position of emperor was only a symbolic oneand as shogun he had the right to approve allcourt appointments.

The shogun controlled about 25 per cent of theland, while the remaining 75 per cent wasdivided up into domains ruled by approximately275 daimyo (lords). A rich daimyo with hissamurai could be a threat to the ruling shogun soIeyasu placed many restrictions on the daimyo.For example:• they could not marry without the shogun’s

approval• they could not build new castles and any

repairs to existing castles had to be approvedby the shogun

• there was a limit to the number of samuraithey could have

• most bridges were destroyed, allowing travelonly along certain pathways so that the move-ments of daimyo could be controlled.

FEUDALISM IN JAPAN

The emperor and imperial court made up the top layer of society. The emperor was worshipped by the people but held little political power. People of the court were refined, cultured and educated. They lived extravagant lives, almost totally detached from the rest of society.

�

The shogun was the most powerful warlord. He commanded military and economic power and effectively ruled the country, controlling laws and taxes. He only remained shogun as long as he could unite a majority of daimyo.

�

Merchants were almost the lowest class in feudal Japan. They were just above the eta and were not seen to have value because they did not create, produce or protect anything. However, in time they became very wealthy by trading with farmers and craftsmen. They also sold the goods and lent the finance needed by many to fund the constant civil wars.

�Source 8.3.1

An artist’s representation of some of the levels of Japan’s feudal structure during the Tokugawa Shogunate


235

The strongest control over daimyo was thesystem of sankin kotai (alternate residence).Almost every daimyo had to spend a year in Edo(modern-day Tokyo), under the eye of the shogun,and a year in his own domain while his immediatefamily were kept as virtual hostages in Edo.

Another similarity to European feudalism wasthe hierarchical system, based to some extent onthat of China, which was called shi-no-ko-sho(warrior-peasant-artisan-merchant). Two groupswere outside this system. At the top were theemperor and the imperial court, based at Kyoto;at the bottom were two outcast sub-classes:• the eta (meaning ‘great filth’) who were

involved in activities such as leather work,burials or butchering

• the hinin (meaning ‘non-persons’) involved inthings like acting.

In Japan today, people like the eta are calledburakumin or hamlet people, and are still con-sidered separate from normal society.

Check your understanding1. From the text and information in source 8.3.1, fill in

the missing levels in the diagram (on the right) of the feudal system in Japan.

2. Compare your completed diagram with that of the medieval European system on page 160.(a) What are the main similarities between the two

systems?

(b) What important differences can you see between the two systems?

(c) What do these differences show about the development and structure of Japanese society in the seventeenth century compared with that of Europe in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries?

3. Explain how the policy of sankin kotai would weaken the power of a daimyo and make him less likely to be a rival to the shogun.

Worksheets8.3 Japanese society crossword

(a) Medieval daimyo and (b) samurai. The daimyo were warrior lords who controlled areas of land and ruled those who lived there. The power of a daimyo depended on the size of his land and the number of samurai he led. These samurai were warriors who swore allegiance to their lord and maintained his authority.

Artisans and craftsmen provided the specialised items everyone needed. Farmers traded their surplus food for goods and services provided by these people.

Farmers and fishermen worked the land and sea to produce everyone’s food. The emperor’s court taxed them heavily. The daimyos encouraged these people to improve production and to produce surplus harvests.

(b)(a)

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C I V I C S A N D C I T I Z E N S H I P F O C U S

JAPANESE CASTLESAND TOWNS

8.4

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Early Japanese castles (around AD 1300) weresimply temporary fortresses used only in times ofwar. These first castles were modelled on thewarrior chiefs’ own homes, with the addition of awatchtower. They were built on mountain ridgesto provide a good lookout and to prevent enemiesattacking easily. By the fifteenth and sixteenthcenturies, wars between rival lords became morecommon, so strong permanent buildings wereneeded.

The golden age of castle construction camebetween 1568 and 1616. The castles of this timewere very elaborate buildings. Many were onplains rather than mountains. They had an outermoat, solid stone foundations, huge stone wallsand several watchtowers. Most also had a steeplysloping road leading to the main gateway and sev-eral other gates to act as escape routes. Throughslits in the castles’ interior walls samurai couldfire arrows or muskets at any invaders.

A plan of Himeji Castle and some of its defensive features

CASTLE DESIGN AND DEFENCES

Source 8.4.1

The buildings inside the castle were often lux-urious. Luis Frois, who lived in Japan for 30 years,wrote a description on which source 8.4.2 is based.

Adapted from a description of Azuchi Castle by a sixteenth century Portuguese missionary, Luis Frois

Source 8.4.2

Inside the walls there are many beautiful and exquisite houses, all of them decorated with gold. In the middle there is a sort of tower and indeed it has a far more noble and splendid appearance than our towers. It consists of seven floors. Inside the walls are decorated with designs richly painted in gold and different colours, while the outside of each of these storeys is painted in various colours.

As the castle is situated on high ground and is itself very lofty, it looks as if it reaches the clouds. The fact that the castle is constructed entirely from wood is not at all apparent either from within or from without, for it looks as if it is built of strong stone and mortar.

Within the castle walls, there was a network of moats, like a maze. The interlocking buildings that ran alongside these moats would be filled with archers during an attack.

Open spaces within the outer walls and moat were meant to tempt intruders to venture further and be killed.

Huge stone walls around the castle stood as massive barriers, daring enemies to risk their lives.

Steep internal paths led attackers into heavily defended narrow tunnels and gateways.


237

The Tokugawa family and castles in declineAfter his supporters won a major battle againstenemy daimyo in 1600, the powerful samuraiTokugawa Ieyasu introduced new laws for castlebuilding. The emperor made Ieyasu his shogunor military chief. Altogether there were 15 Toku-gawa shoguns between 1603 and 1868 and thispowerful samurai family had branchesthroughout Japan. To stop their enemiesbecoming too powerful, the Tokugawa allowedonly one castle in each daimyo’s district. Anyadditional castles had to be pulled down. Manyfine castles were destroyed as a result of this law,while others were ruined during wars. Japannow has far fewer castles than it once had, butHimeji Castle (source 8.4.1) still stands.

Many of the major cities in Japan today devel-oped as medieval castle towns, for exampleTokyo, Osaka, Nagoya and Hiroshima.

Most of the daimyo castles were built nearmain roads and towns gradually grew up aroundthem. Castle towns themselves had no gates orwalls and were usually surrounded by openfarmland and small villages. The daimyo ruledthe villages, including fishing and mountain vil-lages, as part of his local territory. In this waythe castle towns became centres of government.

SamuraiSamurai were originally part-time soldiers whoowned farms and lived in villages. However, inthe sixteenth century new laws forced them tomove to the castle towns. They lived closest tothe castle because they were in the lord’s serviceand had to be ready to defend his castle at amoment’s notice. Their duties included practisingmilitary skills, guarding castle entrances andhelping the daimyo govern his domain. Crafts-people and merchants lived further away fromthe castle and farmers lived in nearby villages.

The farmersThe castle towns also became markets wheregoods were bought and sold. Farmers broughttheir harvests and handmade articles toexchange for goods they needed, especially foritems used on ceremonial occasions. Farmingfamilies grew most of their own food and madebasic foodstuffs such as miso and soy sauce.They also made their own straw capes and hatsto wear in wet weather, and straw sandals forwalking on the rough roads. The farmers usually

CASTLE TOWNS AND THEIR PEOPLE

walked from place to place but wealthy peoplelike daimyo were often carried in palanquins.

The craftspeopleFarmers could not make everything themselves.They bought a range of items such as woodenbarrels for storage, metal tools, pottery and finewoven cloth from craftspeople in the castletowns. Other artisans in the towns made paper,beautiful furniture or magnificent swords forsamurai. Although coins existed, people weremore likely to pay for goods with rice. Rice wasthe main currency and the standard measurewas called the koku.

The merchantsMerchants were an important group in the castletowns. They made their living from charginginterest on money loaned to samurai and farmers.People also paid them to ship rice to markets incastle towns like Osaka. Most rice was shippedalong rivers and by sea because Japanese roadswere designed for foot traffic and horse riders.They were unsuitable for the big wheeled vehiclesneeded to transport large quantities of rice.

Check your understandingCopy and complete the following table using information from the text and source 8.4.1.

Using sourcesRead source 8.4.2. What features surprised and impressed Luis Frois about the castle?

Researching and communicatingThrough research and discussion in small groups, write a report comparing European castles of the Middle Ages and Japanese castles. Research in the library or on the Internet. Refer to pages 162–5 for some information on European castles. To explore Himeji Castle through photographs, go to www.jaconline.com.au/retroactive/retroactive1 and click on the Himeji Castle weblink.

Worksheets8.4 Intruder at Himeji Castle

Castle feature Use in defence

Dry moat Would tempt invaders and could then be flooded

SAMURAI DURING THETOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE

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The samurai played a crucial role in the 250years of Tokugawa rule. They were the top-ranking class in society beneath the daimyo.Samurai meant ‘those who serve (the daimyo)’.In earlier times they were solely warriors, but asJapan became more peaceful under the Toku-gawas, their role in administration also becameimportant. In their training, skills in reading,writing, ceremonial behaviour and public servicewere as important as training in archery, horseriding and sword fighting. The samurai sword,which only samurai could wear, became thesymbol of their military position.

The warrior code (bushido)A true samurai had to follow bushido, the rulesfor the correct and moral behaviour of samurai.His first duty was to be loyal to his daimyo, evento the point of being prepared to commit ritualsuicide (seppuku) if he betrayed this trust.

Photograph of a reproduction of samurai armour from the sixteenth century. This was made in 1860 and presented as a gift to Queen Victoria.

ROLES OF THE SAMURAI

Source 8.5.1

Samurai practised a form of Zen Buddhism toremove all distracting thoughts and give themfull control over their minds and bodies. In thisway they could approach battle calmly, withoutbeing confused by thoughts and feelings.

Confucian beliefs on people’s roles in societyalso became very important. Yamaga Soko(1622–85) taught military strategy and tactics,as well as Chinese literature and Japanese his-tory (see source 8.5.2).

Bushido for a samurai, from lectures given by Yamaga Sokoaround 1665

As city life and trade developed in the latterpart of the Tokugawa Shogunate, the economicand social position of samurai began to decline.

Source 8.5.2

The business of the samurai consists … in discharging loyal service to his master … in deepening his fidelity in association with friends, and … in devoting himself to duty above all. However, in one’s own life, one becomes unavoidably involved in obligations between father and child, older and younger brother, and husband and wife. Though these are also the … obligations of everyone in the land, the farmers, artisans, and merchants have no leisure from their occupations, and so they cannot constantly act in accordance with them and fully exemplify the Way. The samurai dispenses with the business of the farmer, artisan, and merchant and confines himself to practising this Way; should there be someone in the three classes of the common people who transgresses against these moral principles, the samurai summarily punishes him and thus upholds proper moral principles … Within his heart he keeps to the ways of peace, but without he keeps his weapons ready for use. The three classes of … people make him their teacher and respect him. By following his teachings, they are enabled to understand what is fundamental and what is secondary.

R. Tsunoda et al, Sources of the JapaneseTradition, Columbia University Press, New York,

1958, pp. 399–400.


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Source 8.5.3

The tale of the 47 roninAt Japanese New Year it was the custom for the Emperor to send greetings to the court of the shogun. The celebrations often went on for days. The shogun appointed Lord Asano to be one of his representatives at the ceremonies, but being unaware of all the proper manners required, Lord Asano asked Lord Kira for advice about proper behaviour and dress.

Lord Kira was annoyed at the small present offered to him and gave Lord Asano false information. As a result, Lord Asano wore the wrong robes to the ceremonies and was very embarrassed. Outraged, he drew his sword and attacked Lord Kira, wounding him on the forehead. Drawing a sword in the shogun’s palace was an extremely serious offence and the shogun ordered Lord Asano to commit suicide.

After saying goodbye to his family and faithful samurai, Lord Asano plunged a sword into his stomach and cut it open in the ritual suicide called seppuku. In the world of the warrior this was an honourable way to die. Having lost their master, Lord Asano’s samurai were now ronin or masterless samurai and 47 of them plotted revenge. They believed their master had been unfairly treated and that his death was caused by Lord

Kira. To prevent any suspicion of their intentions, they pretended to be irresponsible men. Some even left their wives and families and often visited the pleasure districts.

Lord Kira was aware that he might be attacked and always kept a strong bodyguard. It took two years for the 47 ronin to get their revenge. One snowy night, Lord Kira held a party. His guards got drunk and left him poorly defended. The 47 ronin broke into his house and eventually found him hiding in a little hut. They recognised him by the scar on his forehead. The ronin demanded that Lord Kira commit seppuku but he was too cowardly to do so. They cut off his head instead and carried it to Lord Asano’s grave.

Hearing that Lord Asano’s former samurai had taken revenge, the shogun became angry. He had forbidden such an act and the ronin had defied his authority. He demanded that all 47 of them commit seppuku. Having avenged their dead master, the ronin all did as the shogun ordered. By committing seppuku they paid the highest debt both to their lord and to their ruler. In Japan to this day they are regarded as heroes.

Ninja were members of mountain families, oftendescended from outcast samurai, who fought akind of guerrilla warfare in order to survive.Lacking in numbers and having to operate in dif-ficult terrain, they developed ninjitsu, or ‘art ofstealth’. To outsiders they had a reputation forusing unorthodox fighting techniques thatsamurai would never stoop to. Their skill as‘shadow warriors’ meant that daimyo wouldsometimes employ ninja for night raids, spying,assassinations and break-ins, but most ninjasimply fought for survival.

In Japanese society, a woman was expected tofollow the principle of threefold submission: sub-mission to her husband’s parents, to her husbandand to her adult offspring. A daughter of asamurai would be trained in the use of the hal-berd (combined spear and battleaxe) and in thecare of her father’s horse. She would also betaught how to commit suicide if necessary by cut-ting her jugular vein with a small dagger.

Check your understanding1. From the text and sources, list the important roles

the samurai played during the Tokugawa period.2. What part did (a) Buddhism and (b) Confucianism

play in the role of samurai?3. What roles were performed by Japanese women?

Using sources1. Look at the photograph in source 8.5.1. What might

be the advantages and disadvantages of the samurai’s armour?

2. Carefully read source 8.5.2.(a) Why is the samurai considered to be in a

special position in society compared with the farmers, artisans and merchants?

(b) What evidence is there that Confucian beliefs were stressed during this period?

3. Read source 8.5.3 and write a paragraph on:(a) why the ronin killed Lord Kira(b) how the ronin followed the code of bushido.

Worksheets8.5 A school for samurai

THE NINJA

SAMURAI WOMEN

This is a true story about the fate of 47 ronin (samurai without a master). It took place between the years 1701 and 1703.

CEREMONIES, LITERATUREAND THEATRE

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In the more settled life of the Tokugawa period,the daimyos and their samurai usually lived intowns that grew and developed to meet theirneeds. With urbanisation came a new focus onthe arts, such as literature, theatre and crafts.This was also combined with a long-held love ofritual, so that simple events could have an elab-orate ritual that went with them.

The best example of a Japanese ritual is the teaceremony. Buddhist monks first practised ritualtea drinking in the fourteenth century to keepthem awake during meditation, but later the cer-emony spread to other members of society. A Por-tuguese priest, Father Joao Rodriquez (1563–1633), who spent thirty years in Japan, describedthe purpose of the tea ceremony as ‘to producecourtesy, politeness, modesty, exterior moder-ation, calmness, peace of body and soul, withoutany pride or arrogance’.

The ceremony took place in a special room ofthe house. It was a small room with a low door,so that participants would practise humility asthey bowed to enter. At one end was an alcove forspecial objects such as flower arrangements,pottery, small works of art and Buddhist scrolls.

CEREMONIES

Source 8.6.1

some of the rituals that are part of the ceremony

Before entering the tea room, guests wouldpractise Shinto beliefs of cleanliness by washingtheir hands and rinsing out their mouths. Oncethey entered the room, the host would bring outthe tea vessels that were as simple as possible.They would then have special sweets and beserved tea. When they had finished their tea,they would discuss the merits of the flowerarrangements or works of art, or even the teavessels themselves.

Japan produced what are probably the firstnovels in the world (these are discussed insection 8.2). The Japanese also created distinc-tive forms of poetry. One of the oldest forms ofJapanese poetry is a 31-syllable poem called atanka. It is based on five lines in the pattern5-7-5-7-7. From the tanka tradition, two otherforms grew, called renga and haiku. Renga, orlinked verse poetry, was very popular from thethirteenth to the sixteenth century. Some of thepoems ran to a hundred stanzas and werecomposed by groups of seven or eight peopleworking together. Haiku, or starting versepoetry, was becoming very popular by thesixteenth century. Inspired by his travels inremote parts of Honshu, the poet Matsuo Bashowrote many haiku, two of which are included insource 8.6.2.

Two haiku by Matsuo Basho

LITERATURE

Source 8.6.2Shizukasa yaIwa ni shimi iruSemi no koe

Calm and serenethe sound of a cicadapenetrates the rock

Netsu kusa yaTsuwa mono domo gaYume no ato

In summer grassesare now buriedglorious dreams of ancient

warriors


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A performace of a Nohn play

Attending plays and other performances becamea popular pastime in the imperial court. Manydistinctive forms of Japanese medieval drama,such as noh, kabuki and bunraku, are stillpopular today.

Noh drama was the creation of a fourteenth-century Shinto priest. It began as a dramatic wayof presenting Shinto and Buddhist beliefs butcame to be used for non-religious themes as well.Actors come onto the stage by walking throughthe audience on a raised passageway. Three smallpine trees and a row of pebbles at the front of thestage indicate that the plays were originally per-formed outdoors. Apart from this the stage isusually bare. The actors and chorus are all male,even when playing the parts of women. Someactors wear fine masks and represent emotions bythe way they move their heads and bodies.

Kabuki was the popular form of theatre withspectacular scenery, extravagant costumes andviolent and exciting actions. As in the noh plays,men played women’s roles and the greatestactors were, and still are, those who can perfectthe posture, gestures and voices of women.

In bunraku, many of the stories were similarto those in kabuki but the ‘actors’ were half life-size puppets. Unlike human actors, puppetscould be beheaded on stage, or make leapsimpossible for humans. The dramatic action wasaccompanied by a shamisen, a three-stringedinstrument. Japanese puppets were moved byhand, not strings, so the performers whomanipulated the puppets and spoke the linesbecame celebrated figures in society.

Source 8.6.3

THEATRE

A photograph of a modern bunraku play

Check your understanding1. In what ways did the development of towns and

court life help in the growth of arts and literature?2. What elements of the tea ceremony are related to:

(a) Shintoism(b) Buddhism?

3. What were the three main forms of drama? Describe the differences between each form.

4. What actions could be done on stage using puppets that would be impossible with human actors?

5. Give examples where modern film techniques have made many of these things appear possible for human actors.

Using sourcesUse Basho’s poetry (source 8.6.2) as a model for some of your own haiku. The rules below will help you understand the haiku form:• Write only three lines for each poem; they don’t have

to rhyme.• First line five syllables; second line seven syllables;

third line five syllables.• Be imaginative and include fresh, interesting images

from nature.

Communicating1. Look at source 8.6.3. With a partner, take turns in

wearing a simple mask that covers your face. Try to convey different emotions just by the way you move your body. See if your partner can interpret these correctly.

2. Working in groups, write a short bunraku play that exploits the possibilities of using puppets.

Source 8.6.4

A photograph of a noh play

A RICH LEGACY INART AND CRAFTS

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The artistic achievements of Japan are recog-nised and admired worldwide. While many tra-ditions originated in mainland Asia, changes andrefinements over many centuries have madethem distinctively Japanese. Buddhism hasmade major contributions to Japanese arts andculture: richly illustrated books and the ornatearchitecture of pagodas, gates and cloisters weresome of the new concepts. Many of the artistictraditions you will read about in this sectioncontinue to be practised in Japan today.

In Japanese cities during the medieval period,the rich men and women lived a life quite sep-arate from that of the ordinary men and women.It was referred to as the ‘floating world’ and wasbest shown in the prints of the period. Thesewere called ukioyo-e, which meant ‘pictures ofthe floating world’.

The images were first carved into woodenblocks (with the image reversed). Areas thatwere to remain white were cut away. Ink wasthen spread over the raised sections of the blockand thin paper was laid face-down across it. Theback of the paper was rubbed to transfer all the

PRINTMAKING

colour. At first, prints were done in black andwhite and coloured by hand but, by the eight-eenth century, techniques for printing fourcolours were developed, by making a separateblock for each colour.

Origami is Japanese paper folding. In ancienttimes, Shinto shrines provided special paper forpaper cutouts of human figures that were used inpurification ceremonies. However, as paper becamemore widely available, origami also became anentertainment, which is its main purpose in Japantoday. The paper is rarely cut, only folded. Ori-gami’s other uses include wrapping for gifts andfolding traditional ornaments (see page 246).

These small containers of lacquerware wereprobably first used around the twelfth century tocarry seals and seal paste to stamp on docu-ments. However, by the late medieval period theyhad been adapted for carrying medicines. Thebeautiful decoration of inro (often with gold orsilver foil) showed the owners’ status and wealth.

ORIGAMI

INRO

Two finely lacquered inro from the Edo period (1601–1868)

Source 8.7.2

A woodcut print by Hiroshige (1797–1858) from his series‘Fifty-three Stations of the Tokaido Road’

Source 8.7.1


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Bonsai or ‘tray planting’ came to Japan fromChina around 800 years ago, about the sametime as Zen, and has continued in Japan overmany centuries. Bonsai trees as old as seven oreight hundred years still exist. They are grownin small pots or shallow ceramic trays andideally look as natural as possible. Techniques oftrimming roots and branches keep the treesbetween one-thirtieth and one-sixtieth of theirnatural size. For example, a beech tree whichmight grow to 30 metres in the wild can be keptas small as 32 centimetres.

Bonsai fruit tree

Dolls have a very ancient history in Japan andmany styles have developed over the centuries.The first dolls were probably prehistoric clay andstone figurines with religious or magic signifi-cance. Wooden dolls as playthings seem to havebeen popular in the Heian period (AD 794–1185)and other sorts of dolls were used in Shintoceremonies at the emperor’s court during thetwelfth and thirteenth centuries. Dolls dressed

BONSAI

Source 8.7.3

DOLLS

as samurai or court ladies are still popular today.A doll festival is held every year on 3 March.

Kites are another Japanese art form associatedwith religion. It is possible that they originatedin ancient times as a way of making offerings tothe gods or sending prayers to heaven. There arealso stories about them being used for sendingmessages in time of war. By the late Middle Ages,kites decorated with dragons, warriors and Chi-nese lions were flown for fun. Kite battlesbecame a popular form of public entertainment.

Check your understanding1. How did the ideas and culture that Japan borrowed

from the Asian mainland become distinctively Japanese?

2. What is the English translation of ukioyo-e? Why was this term used to describe the woodcut prints of this period?

3. Explain the links between religion and the arts by summarising the ideas in a table. Draw up four columns with the following headings: Art form; Time of origin; Religious purpose; Later use. Enter information into the table on each of the art forms mentioned on these pages (you could extend this table to include the types of literature and drama covered on pages 240–1).

Creating1. Making a proper woodcut print requires special

timber and sharp tools. However, you can try the same process using a potato cut in half. Using the cut edge of the potato, cut out the shape (reversed) of a letter of the alphabet, paint over the flat surface then print it onto paper.

2. Make your own inro from an empty plastic pill bottle. Attach plastic tubing to each side with sticky tape (these will be channels for the cord). Glue decorated paper over your inro or use plain white paper and paint your own Japanese themes on it. Finally, thread coloured cord (about 30 centimetres long) through the channels and tie it in a neat bow at the bottom. At the lid end, tie a knot in the loop of cord, thread on a large bead or button and knot the cord above the bead to secure it.

Worksheets8.6 Origami jumping frog

KITES

CONTACT AND ISOLATION: JAPAN AND THE ‘RED-HAIRED BARBARIANS’

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We have seen that from earliest times Japan’sown rich culture was influenced by China andKorea. This influence could be direct, as in theuse of a Chinese script. The influence could alsobe indirect, as in the part Korean monks playedin the early days of Buddhism, and as in theattempted Mongolian invasions of Japan in thefourteenth century. When the voyages of explor-ation from Europe began in the sixteenth andseventeenth centuries it was only a matter oftime before the Europeans too would reachJapan.

During the 1500s, several European nationswere looking to expand their empires into Asiaand increase their wealth through trade. Thisbrought many foreigners to the East and in 1543some traders from Portugal landed on a Japa-nese island near Kyushu.

At first the contact between the Europeansand Japanese was friendly. The Japanese peoplewere introduced to many new products, such astobacco and Chinese silk. But it was a weaponthat held most fascination for them — a type ofmusket that the Portuguese merchants broughtwith them. Source 8.8.1 recounts the efforts ofone daimyo to copy the invention and work outhow to make his own muskets. This ability of theJapanese people to study Western products andtechnology and improve on them was to makeJapan a wealthy industrial nation by the 1960s.

After a few years, the rulers of Japan werebecoming increasingly concerned about the influ-ence of the Europeans. The rulers began to passlaws that restricted trading and certain religiousactivities. Eventually, in 1639, they bannedPortuguese ships from Japan and executed anytraders who tried to land there. Japan cut itselfoff from the rest of the world and remainedisolated from foreign influences for over 200years.

The Dutch were the only group of Europeanspermitted to remain in Japan. This was partlybecause they were Protestants and contrastedthemselves with the Portuguese Catholics. The

EUROPEAN TRADERS AND THEIR INFLUENCE

Dutch were confined to a tiny artificial island inthe middle of Nagasaki harbour and wereallowed only one annual visit to the shogun.However, these ‘red-haired barbarians’, as theywere commonly known, were allowed to importany books except those dealing with Christianity.From these, the Japanese gradually came tohave some knowledge of Western science.

A lord’s fascination with firepower

Source 8.8.1

On seeing this article, Tokitaka regarded it as a most extraordinary thing, but did not know its name or its use.

Afterwards people called it ‘teppo’, but I am not sure whether the name is of Chinese or of native origin. One day Tokitaka asked the two foreigners to teach him its use, and he soon became so skilful that he could nearly hit a white object placed at the distance of a hundred steps. He then bought two pieces, regardless of the very high price asked for them, and kept them as the most precious treasures of his house. He continued to practise shooting incessantly, and at last made himself so skilful that he never missed his aim. As for the manufacture of the mysterious machine, Tokitaka had his retainer Sasakawa Koshiro instructed in it. He also ordered some blacksmiths to manufacture the tube and after much labour they so far succeeded in their work that they could produce almost similar articles, but they did not know how to close one end. Next year the foreign merchants again came to Kumano. Among them there was one blacksmith. Tokitaka was filled with joy, and at once sent one of his retainers to learn from him how to close the end. In this way the manufacture of fire-arms was learnt, and in a year or so sixty or seventy muskets were manufactured.

Dairyuji Fumiyuki, in J. Murdoch and I. Yamagota, AHistory of Japan During the Century of Early Foreign

Intercourse (1542–1651), Office of the Chronicle, Kobe,1903, p. 42.


245

A woodcut print by a Japanese artist showing a railwaystation in Japan in the nineteenth century

The shoguns were afraid that Western ideaswould destroy their traditional way of life.Although Japanese scholars did studyastronomy, medicine and other sciences throughtranslating Dutch works, the study of politicswas banned. This changed in the middle of thenineteenth century. The shoguns realised thatthe only way to resist the increasing Westerninfluence was to adopt Western ideas and tech-nology but maintain Japanese values.

Only fifty years after the period of isolation endedin 1853, Japan began its transformation into oneof the world’s wealthiest and strongest industrialnations. It was quick to learn from the West,absorbing the latest in technology and perfectingits work systems. The Japanese became marketleaders in the manufacture of electronic goods,cars and many other products. However, they didnot abandon their customs and principles. Theycontinued to practise the traditional ceremonies

JAPAN’S CULTURAL LEGACY

and their unique artistic and cultural pursuitsthat began in the imperial period.

The codes of behaviour that marked therelationship between the daimyo and samurai arestill a part of Japanese society. For example, Jap-anese workers have been known for their loyaltyto their companies and dedication to their work.The sense of honour has been an important featureof the way Japanese managers have conductedbusiness. The traditions of Shinto and Buddhismalso continue to bind most Japanese families.Family life is very important and the principles ofduty and obligation to parents are still strong.

The role of the emperor was also to change. Inthe Japanese constitution that applied until1945, the emperor retained the power to declarewar and conclude treaties, and could open andclose parliament. (The importance of this inending World War II is examined on page 248.)

Check your understanding1. List four different foreign influences on Japan. For

each one, state:(a) the countries that influenced Japan(b) the nature of the influence.

2. What were three things the Portuguese brought to Japan?

3. Present the dates and events from the 1500s onwards, as described in this section, as a timeline in your workbook.

Using sources1. Carefully read source 8.8.1 and answer the

following questions.(a) What is the object being discussed?(b) What are two pieces of evidence that show the

Japanese could learn quickly from the foreigners?(c) What problem remained and how was this

problem solved?2. (a) Study the woodcut print in source 8.8.2 and

make a list of the forms of transport that can be seen in the print.

(b) The first Tokyo railway station opened in 1871, using building designs and technology adapted from the West. Find out what type of train Tokyo is famous for today.

Researching and communicating1. By 1905 Japan was strong enough to defeat Russia.

Carry out research into the Russo–Japanese war of 1904–5.

2. The Mitsubishi company was established in the 1870s by a former samurai. Research the early history of this company.

Source 8.8.2

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Check & Challenge

1. For each of the following words, find the description (a) to (l) that matches it.

(a) The religion that means ‘way of the gods’(b) A more common form of currency than coins(c) The book written by Sei Shonagon(d) A form of printing from wood(e) Japanese three-line poem(f) A form of puppet theatre(g) The name given to the class of people below the

merchants(h) The lord whom the samurai served(i) The religion that originally came from India(j) The rules of correct behaviour for a samurai(k) Word meaning ‘divine wind’(l) The leading warrior, just below the emperor

2. Choose one of the following assignments:(a) Use your local or school library to find the text of

a noh play to perform in class. A good book is Anthology of Japanese literature (Penguin Classic, 1978) edited by Donald Keene. Good encyclopedias and CD-ROMs are also useful resources about Noh.

Make a poster of the noh stage showing where the actors stand. Research the characters and movements of the actors. Find out about noh masks, and make some to use in your presentation.

(b) Make an illustrated poster about shrines, temples or castles in Japan. Use your library or the Internet to find details. The following search terms may help: Himeji, Shinto, Zen.

A photograph of a Japanese temple

T E S T Y O U R S E L F

• eta• Shinto• daimyo• Pillow Book

•• bunraku• shogun• Buddhism

•• bushido• kamikaze• haiku

Source 8.9.1

3. Japanese paper folding or origami is a popular pastime and many elaborate designs can be created. Try making an origami bird by following the guidelines in source 8.9.2. Display your finished creations in the classroom.

4. The Tale of the Heike tells the story of the struggle for power at the end of the twelfth century between the Taira family (Heike) and the Minamoto family (Genji). Read source 8.9.3, which tells part of this famous story.(a) Why do you think Naozane wanted to fight a

great enemy commander?(b) Why was Naozane at first disgusted with the

boy’s behaviour in war?(c) Why did he decide to spare the boy’s life? What

made him change his mind?(d) The powder and blackened teeth of the boy seem

unusual to us. What other things can you think of that were once considered fashionable or

Source 8.9.2 An origami pattern for a bird

1

2

3

4

5

6

Fold

Fold

Fold upperleaf back

Lift up other wing andmake head

Lift upthe wing

Drawin eyes

Cut here toshape body


247

beautiful but are now no longer regarded in that way?

(e) Why did the flute make such an impression on all the people who saw it?

(f) Why do you think Naozane no longer wished to be a soldier and instead ‘turned his thoughts towards the spiritual life’?

(g) What have you learnt from this story?

The death of AtsumoriSource 8.9.3

After the defeat of the Heike clan at Ichi-no-tani, Kumagai Naozane, a Genji soldier, was walking his horse toward the beach. He was hoping to come across a Heike noble or courtier fleeing to the ships. As he was thinking about how much he would like to take on some great enemy commander, Naozane noticed a solitary horseman making his way through the sea towards the ships. The Heike soldier rode a dappled horse whose saddle gleamed with gold, and he wore an embroidered silk hitatare jacket, a suit of armour and a horned helmet.

Naozane called out to the Heike soldier: ‘Shame on you turning your back on an enemy. Turn back and face me, coward!’

The soldier wheeled his horse around in the sea and rode back to fight. Naozane galloped to meet him and, as he came alongside his enemy’s horse, Naozane reached out, threw him to the ground and pulled off the other man’s helmet in readiness for cutting off his head. But what he saw was the face of a mere youth of no more than seventeen years. His beautiful face was powdered and his teeth blackened*. He was about the same age as Naozane’s own son.

‘Who are you?’ Naozane demanded. ‘If you tell me your name, I will not take your life.’

‘No. Give me your name first,’ said the boy.‘I am not important in the greater scheme of

things. My name is Kumagai Naozane of Musashi.’‘Well, you have found a worthy opponent in me.

Once you cut off my head and show it to others, you will soon find out who you have killed,’ said the boy.

Naozane pondered this. He must be a leader of the Heike. Whether I kill him or save him, it will not change the outcome of this battle. And think of my own son, Kojiro: when he was injured even slightly this morning, my heart was sore. Think how this boy’s father will feel if his son is killed! No, I will not take his life.

However, at that very moment, Naozane looked behind him to see fifty horsemen riding towards them. He held back his tears. ‘Alas, even if I spared your life, the place is still swarming with my fellow Genji, your enemies. You cannot escape. If you must die, I will take this burden on

myself. I promise that prayers will be said for your rebirth in heaven,’ said Naozane.

‘I could not live honourably if you did not,’ said the youth. ‘You must take my life at once!’

Naozane was so distraught with pity that he could scarcely lift his sword, and his eyes were blinded by tears. But there was no other way. Weeping, he brought the sword down and beheaded the boy. ‘Alas! Who would be a soldier? It is a hard and bitter life. Only one born to a warrior family could carry out such an act.’ He raised his sleeve to his face and wept. Then, needing something to wrap the head in, he began to remove the boy’s hitatare jacket. As he did so, he noticed a flute in a small cloth bag tucked in the boy’s waistband. ‘This was the flute we heard playing this morning! It must have been this boy with his friends inside the castle walls, distracting themselves before the battle. I doubt that any of our men brought such an instrument with them. Truly, these courtiers and nobles are refined people.’

Naozane returned to his commander and fellow soldiers, and told them what he had done. When he showed them the flute, everyone present was moved to tears. Only then did Naozane discover that the boy was Atsumori, the youngest son of Tsunemori, a senior Heike courtier. The boy had lived seventeen years.

From that moment, Naozane’s thoughts increasingly turned towards the spiritual life and the idea of becoming a monk.

[*To blacken one’s teeth was thoughtbeautiful at thattime in Japan.]

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EMPEROR AKIHITO: ROLE OF THE JAPANESE EMPEROR TODAY

Source 8.10.1

Traditionally, the Japanese believed that theiremperor had magical powers and the ability tocommunicate with the gods. This meant that, fromthe earliest times, the emperor had no involvementin the day-to-day running of the government. Suchthings were beneath him. Instead, policies andlaws were made by ministers who served the

emperor. By the twelfthcentury, Japan’s leadingminister and effective rulerhad assumed the title of

shogun. This contrastsgreatly with European

monarchs who, until thenineteenth century,would often actuallygovern their countries.

In 1889, the newMeiji constitutionwas written. Thisplaced the emperoras the head of theempire of Japan withthe right to declarewar, command thearmy and maintainorder. However, inpractice the emperor

remained abovegovernment and made

no decisions himself.

The Japanese emperor Hirohito(reigned 1926–89)

The position of the Japanese emperor inmodern Japan is quite different from theemperors of the medieval period. Today,Japan’s ruling emperor and empress areviewed in much the same way as peoplein Australia and Great Britain view theBritish royal family. However, the Japa-nese have a great respect for their royalfamily and would never allow details oftheir private lives to be splashed over thefront pages of Japan’s newspapers.

In early 1945, the Japanese were facing certaindefeat in World War II by the American andother Allied forces. However, even after theUnited States dropped two devastating atomicbombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima andNagasaki, the Japanese military leaders refusedto surrender. It was the Emperor Hirohito whoeventually brought about Japan’s surrender. Heordered the commanders to cease fighting andspoke on national radio to the Japanese people toannounce that the war was over. This was a dra-matic moment for two quite different reasons.First, the emperor was making a direct impacton military policy. Second, this was the first timethat the people of Japan had ever heard the voiceof their emperor.

During the war, Japan had been responsiblefor serious acts of cruelty on Allied prisoners-of-war. Many people in the United States, Britainand Australia wanted Emperor Hirohito put ontrial for war crimes. Immediately after the war,Japan was ruled by US General DouglasMacarthur and, mainly due to his influence, thelife of Hirohito was saved. Macarthur and othersbelieved that it would help post-war Japan andthe world at large if the emperor was used as asymbol of the new Japan.

A new constitution was introduced to Japanafter the war. Known as the Showa constitution,it changed the role of the emperor dramatically(see source 8.10.2). Japan’s emperor now had nopolitical powers. His role was a ceremonial oneand all his actions required the advice andapproval of the Cabinet. An even greater changecame on New Year’s Day 1946. The EmperorShowa (Hirohito) declared that he was not a god.

Extract from the Showa constitution:

IMPACT OF WORLD WAR II

Source 8.10.2

[The new constitution made the emperor] . . . the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power . . .


249

The emperor of Japan, Akihito, who came to thethrone in 1989, is believed to be Japan’s 125themperor. His reign is called ‘Heisei’ which means‘the achievement of complete peace on Earth andin the heavens’. Akihito’s role as emperor is quitedifferent from those of his predecessors. His pos-ition is still held in high esteem and older Japa-nese people maintain enormous respect for theiremperor. However, in recent years there havebeen efforts to make the royal family appeal tothe people with a feeling of warmth and affec-tion, not with the cold distance of previous gener-ations. The Japanese royal family has, however,avoided the close media attention that theBritish royal family have endured in recentyears.

The emperor and his wife try to present tothe world a modern, educated, middle-class,democratic Japan. When the son of EmperorAkihito married, he chose a highly educatedcareer woman who is fluent in several lan-guages. She is very different from the hidden,submissive wives of Japan’s imperial past andindicates how much the Japanese monarchy haschanged.

EMPEROR AKIHITO: THE MODERN EMPEROR

Check your understanding1. What is the most significant difference between the

way the Japanese people view the emperor today and how they viewed him in medieval times?

2. What role did the emperor play in ruling Japan?3. What was significant about Japan’s surrender at the

end of World War II? Explain what happened to the position of the emperor after World War II.

4. What image do the present emperor and empress try to convey to the people of Japan and the world?

Using sources1. Read source 8.10.2. What is the importance of the

phrase ‘deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power’?

2. Examine source 8.10.3. Is there any evidence in the photograph that relations between the British and Japanese royal families might still be strained?

Researching and communicatingChoose one of the following topics to research in pairs or small groups and present a report to the class.1. Research what happened at Changi, on the Burma

Railway, and Sandakan during World War II.2. Research the life of Emperor Hirohito.3. Do an Internet search to find out current news

about Crown Princess Masako and daughter Aiko.

L I N K T O T H E M O D E R N W O R L D

Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko with Queen Elizabeth, the Duke of Edinburgh and the Queen Mother at Buckingham Palace, London, in May 1998

Source 8.10.3

chapter 8globalhist.weebly.com/uploads/1/0/2/9/10294562/japan_readings.pdf · the ainu people in...

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