1

CHAPTER

4States of Consciousness

Links to Learning Objectives

DRUG-ALTERED CONSCIOUSNESS

Psychoactive drugs

Substance abuse & substance dependence

Drug research

Depressants

Stimulants

LSD & marijuana

Explaining abuse & addiction

MEDITATION AND HYPNOSIS

Effects of meditation

Hypnosis

ENDURING ISSUES IN STATES OF

CONSCIOUSNESS

SLEEP

Why we sleep

Circadian rhythms & jet lag

The sleep cycle

Sleep disorders

DREAMS

Why we dream

Diversity-

Universality

Stability-Change

Mind-Body

Nature-Nurture

Person-Situation

Enduring Issues

How do the settings

in which consciousness-

altering drugs are taken

influence their effects?

2

Enduring Issues

Are there significant

differences among people

in their susceptibility to

various altered states of

consciousness?Diversity-

Universality

Stability-Change

Mind-Body

Nature-Nurture

Person-Situation

Enduring Issues

In what ways do

psychological states affect

biological processes

and, conversely, in

what ways do

biological processes

affect psychological

experiences?

Diversity-

Universality

Stability-Change

Mind-Body

Nature-Nurture

Person-Situation

Awareness

of various

cognitive

processes,

such as

sleeping,

dreaming,

concentrating,

and making

decisions

onsciousness

3

States of Consciousness

Waking:

Thoughts, feelings,

and perceptions that

occur when we are

awake and

reasonably alert

Altered states:

Mental states that

differ noticeably from

normal waking

consciousness

Sleep

Sleep

Evidence exists that sleep is

necessary for physical and

mental restoration.

• Immune system functioning

• Cognitive functioning

• Problem solving

• Decision making

• Creativity

• Long term memory

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Summarize current thinking about

why we sleep.

ZZZZZZ

ZZZ Z

4

Circadian Cycles: The Biological Clock

Circadian rhythm:

Regular biological

rhythm with a period

of approximately

24 hours

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe circadian rhythms and their relationship to jetlag.

Suprachiasmatic

nucleus (SCN):

Cluster of neurons

in hypothalamus

that receives input

from the retina

regarding light

and dark cycles;

involved in

regulating the

biological clock

Jet Lag“We rarely notice circadian rhythms until they are disturbed. Jet lag is a

familiar example. Travelers who cross several time zones in one day often

feel „out of it‟ for several days. The reason for jet lag is not so much lack of

sleep as desynchronization. Sleep-and-wake cycles adapt quickly, but

hormones, body temperature, and digestive cycles change more slowly. As a

result, bodily functions are out of synch.”

– Page 124 (Morris & Maisto)

The Rhythms of Sleep

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the sleep cycle, distinguishing between the various sleep stages. Explain why REM sleep is also called paradoxical sleep. Explain how the sleep cycle changes across the life span.

Twilight State: “Going to Sleep”

• Alpha waves

(irregular, low-voltage)

• Brain-wave pattern mirrors

sense of relaxed wakefulness

experienced while lying

on a beach or resting

after a big meal

5

Stage 4: Lowest heart rate,

breathing rate,

blood pressure,

body temperature;

very slow delta waves

Non-REM Sleep

Stage 1: Pulse slows,

muscles relax, eyes

make rolling

movements, sleeper

is easily awakened

Stages 2 and 3: Sleeper is hard to awaken,

unresponsive to stimuli; heart

rate, blood pressure,

temperature continue to drop;

sleep spindles appear (2) and

delta waves emerge (3)

• Characterized by:

– Rapid-eye movements

– Increased dreaming

• Also called paradoxical

sleep

REM Sleep

The Brain-Wave Patterns Typical of the Five Stages of Sleep

6

Stages of Sleep

A Night’s Sleep Across the Life Span

Source: Adapted from p. 487 in “Medical Progress of Sleep Disorders: Recent Findings in the Diagnosis and

Treatment of Disturbed Sleep” by Anthony Kales, M.D., et al., The New England Journal of Medicine, 290

(1974), 487-499. Copyright ©1974 by the Massachusetts Medical Society. All rights reserved.

Changes in REM and NREM Sleep

Source: Reprinted p. 16 in “Ontogenetic Development of the Human Sleep-Dream Cycle” by Roffwarg, et al., Science, 152

(1966). Copyright © 1966 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Reprinted by permission of the

Copyright Clearance Center on behalf of AAAS.

7

Sleep Deprivation

• Between 1/3 and 1/2 of all adults regularly

fail to get enough sleep.

• Nearly 80% of adolescents fail to get the

recommended 9 hours of sleep for their

age group.

• Sleep deprivation leads to many cognitive

deficits and physical problems.

Applying Psychology

• Maintain a regular bedtime and

a relaxing bedtime routine.

• Don’t overeat or use drugs.

• Keep the room temperature comfortable.

• Don’t exercise within several hours of

bedtime.

• Avoid anxious thoughts while in bed.

• Don’t fight insomnia when it occurs.

Sleep Disorders

Sleeptalking and

Sleepwalking

– Usually occur during

Stage 4

– More common among

children than adults

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the key sleep disorders,

distinguishing between nightmares and night terrors and

between insomnia, apnea, and narcolepsy.

8

ightmares

Frighteningdreams

that occur during

REM sleep

and areremembered

ight Terrors

Frighteningdreams

that occur during NREM

sleepfrom whicha person isdifficult to

awaken and doesn’t

remember the content

Sleep Disorders

Insomnia: Difficulty in

falling asleep or

remaining asleep

throughout the

night

Sleep apnea: Breathing

difficulties at

night; in severe

cases, the

person stops

breathing

Narcolepsy: Sudden nodding

off during the

day and sudden

loss of muscle

tone and

expression

9

Dreams

Dreams

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain what dreams are. Summarize the explanations of dream activity and

content as set forth in Freudian theory, information processing theory, and neural activation theory.

Drug-Altered Consciousness

10

sychoac t ived r u g s

Chemical

substances

that

change

moods,

perceptions,

mental

functioning,

or behavior

Drug Use Over the Centuries

• How drugs are used and what drugs are used have changed over the centuries.

• Motives for use:

– In most cultures: religious rituals,

medicinal purposes, nutritional benefits,

culturally-approved stimulants

– Contemporary society: recreational

reasons

• Today:– Stronger drugs

– Synthetic drugs

– Greater knowledge about drug effects

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Define psychoactive drugs and

summarize how their use has changed over the centuries.

Substance Use, Abuse, and Dependence

Substance use:Occasional use of drugs

Substance abuse:

Pattern of drug use that

results in:

• diminished ability to

fulfill responsibilities

• repeated drug use in

dangerous situations

• legal difficulties

related to drug use

Substance dependence:

Pattern of compulsive

drug taking that

results in:

• tolerance

• withdrawal

symptoms

• other specific

symptoms for at

least a year

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Differentiate substance abuse and substance dependence.

11

How Drug Effects Are Studied

• Carefully controlled

scientific conditions

– Double-blind procedure

– Placebo

• Neuroimaging techniques

such as PET scans

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain how double-

blind procedures and placebos are used in

drug research.

Categories of Psychoactive Drugs

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the major depressants, their effects, the effects of

an overdose, and the extent to which they are susceptible to dependence.

Depressants: Alcohol, Barbiturates, and the Opiates

12

Alcohol

• Most frequently used

psychoactive drug in

Western societies

• Number-one drug problem in the

United States; 9% of adults report

dependence or abuse

• Staggering economic cost of

abuse/dependence

• Directly involved in more than

20,000 deaths annually

• Despite dangers, remains popular

because of short-term effects

• Binge drinking frequent

occurrence on college campuses

Source: Data from Drugs, Society, and Human Behavior, 10th ed., by Oakley Ray, 2003, New York: McGraw-Hill; U.S. National Library of Medicine. (2006). Alcohol use. Retrieved December 19, 2008, from

http;//www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001944.htm.

Teenage Use of Alcohol (% Drunk in Past 30 Days)

Source: National survey results as reported in L.D. Johnston, P.M. O’Malley, J.G. Bachman,

& J.E. Schulenberg. (2008, December 11). Various stimulant drugs show continuing

gradual declines among teens in 2008, most illicit drugs hold steady. Ann Arbor, MI:

University of Michigan News Service.

13

Per Capita Annual Alcohol Consumption

in the United States, 1977 - 2005

Source: http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/Resources/DatabaseResources/QuickFacts/AlcoholSales/consum01.html

Persons Killed in Alcohol-Related Traffic Crashes

Source: http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSFAnn/TSF2004.pdf, http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/Pubs/810809.PDF

Barbiturates

• Potentially deadly depressants

• First used for their sedative and anticonvulsant properties, now used only to treat such conditions as epilepsy and arthritis

• Sometimes prescribed as a sleep aid, but actually disrupt the body’s natural sleep patterns and cause dependence

14

Opiates

• Drugs, such as opium and heroin, derived from the opium poppy

• Dull the senses and induce feelings of euphoria, well-being, and relaxation

• Synthetic drugs resembling opium derivatives also classified as opiates

• Morphine compounds still used in painkillers and other medications

• Heroin, other opiates resemble the body’s endorphins

Stimulants: Caffeine, Nicotine, Amphetamines, and Cocaine

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the major stimulants, their effects, the effects of

an overdose, and the extent to which they are susceptible to dependence.

Nicotine Caffeine

EcstasyCocaine

Caffeine

• One of a class of

drugs known as

xanthine stimluants

• Found in coffee, tea,

other beverages, and

nonprescription drugs

• Generally considered

benign in small doses

• Can cause dependence

and tolerance in those

who consume it regularly

15

The Amount of Caffeine in Some Common Preparations

Source: From The New York Times, August 7, 1991. Copyright © 1991 by The New York Times Company. Reprinted with permission.

Nicotine

• Neurochemical

properties similar to

cocaine, amphetamines,

and morphine

• Affects several different

neurotransmitters

• 12- to 17-year-olds

who smoke:– 12 times more likely to use illicit drugs

– 16 more times more likely to drink

heavily

– Increased risk of depression

Amphetamines

• Stimulant drugs that

initially produce “rushes” of

euphoria, often followed by

sudden “crashes” and,

sometimes, severe

depression

– Methamphetamine

– Ecstasy

16

Teenage Use of Ecstasy

Source: National survey results as reported in L.D. Johnston, P.M. O’Malley, J.G. Bachman, &

J.E. Schuenberg, (2008, December 11). Various stimulant drugs show continuing gradual declines

among teens in 2008, most illicit drugs hold steady. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan

News Service.

Cocaine

• Derived from the coca plant

• Produces a sense of

euphoria by stimulating the

sympathetic nervous

system, but also leads to

anxiety, depression, and

addictive cravings

– Status drug:

“amphetamine of the wealthy”

– Damages dopamine brain cells

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the effects of LSD and marijuana.

Hallucinogens and Marijuana

17

Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)

• Produces hallucinations

and delusions similar

to those occurring in a psychotic

state; can be pleasurable or

terrifying

• Does not appear to produce

dependency and withdrawal effects

• Taken repeatedly, tolerance builds

up rapidly and drug fails to produce

significant effects

• Generally taken episodically

rather than habitually

Marijuana

• Mild hallucinogen that

produces a “high” often

characterized by feelings of

euphoria, a sense of well-

being, and swings in mood

from gaiety to relaxation;

may also cause feelings of

anxiety and paranoia

– Active ingredient is

tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

– Subject of much debate in

scientific circles and public

forums

Teenage Use of Marijuana in Past Year

Source: National survey results as reported in L.D. Johnston, P.M. O’Malley,

J.G. Bachman, & J.E. Schuenberg, (2008, December 11). Various stimulant

drugs show continuing gradual declines among teens in 2008, most illicit drugs

hold steady. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan News Service.

18

Drugs: Characteristics and Effects

Explaining Abuse and Addiction

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the biological, psychological, social and cultural

factors that make it more likely someone will abuse drugs.

Abuse of Multiple Drugs“As a rule, young people who use „club drugs‟ also drink and smoke; likewise,

college binge drinkers typically smoke cigarettes and marijuana as well

(National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, 2007). The same

behavior is true of older drug abusers. In addition, people who use one

drug…often use another drug…to counteract the effects of the first drug. This

practice not only multiplies their risks as individuals, but also makes efforts to

diagnose and treat drug problems more difficult.”

– Page 146 (Morris & Maisto)

19

Meditation and Hypnosis

Meditation

Any of the various methods of concentration, reflection, or focusing of thoughts undertaken to suppress the activity of the sympathetic nervous system

• Useful for stress reduction

• May enhance effectiveness of

the immune system and overall

psychological well-being

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the biological and psychological effects of

meditation.

Hypnosis

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain why it is difficult to define hypnosis, the process

of inducing hypnosis, and the role of hypnotic suggestions.

Trancelike state in which a person responds readily to suggestions

• Debate over what it really means to

be hypnotized

• Individuals vary in degree of

suggestibility

• Therapeutic uses for pain

• Used for cessation of smoking but

effectiveness debated

20

Lecture Activities

Let’s list a few

“altered states” of

consciousness.

Think about when

and how these states

have affected you in

the past or may

affect you in the

future.

In small groups discuss:

1) your experiences with insomnia

2) various factors that lead to insomnia

3) ways to reduce insomnia

21

What methods to

stop smoking have

worked for you or

people that you

know? What is it like

to break a heavy

nicotine addiction?

What advice would

you give to others

who are trying

to quit?

?!You’ve probably heard stories about people getting their

pets high on marijuana. Usually, animals do not have voluntary access to

drugs. When they do have access to drugs, will non-human animals seek

out drugs, and can they become addicted to drugs like humans can?

YES. Drugs typically work by mimicking neurotransmitters which are

evolutionarily old and present in many animals, including humans. Physical

addiction is thus possible for non-human animals.

NO. Experiencing effects of psychoactive drugs requires a state of altered

consciousness. Only humans experience true consciousness.

YES. Animals will seek drugs, but only when the search does not interfere with

the normal instinctive behavior, such as mating and grooming. They will search,

but will not become addicted.

NO. Non-human animals cannot experience psychological dependence, and both

psychological and physical dependence are necessary for true addiction.

Is hypnosis just another form of

meditation? If so, can anyone do it? What

does it take to really concentrate and

relax? What are the benefits? On the next

slide you will be guided briefly through an

exercise in concentrative meditation.

22

Why does meditation promote feelings of well-being and satisfaction?

Why is it difficult to keep distracting thoughts from entering consciousness while meditating?

Does meditation lead to heightened states of consciousness or creativity?

Acknowledgments

23

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