Chapter Seven:Research Questions and Hypotheses

Chapter Outline• Qualitative Research Questions

Example 7.1. A Qualitative Central Question From an Ethnography Example 7.2. Qualitative Central Questions From a Case Study

• Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses Example 7.3. A Null Hypothesis Example 7.4. Directional Hypotheses Example 7.5. Nondirectional and Directional Hypotheses Example 7.6. Standard Use of Language in Hypotheses

• A Model for Descriptive Questions and Hypotheses Example 7.7. Descriptive and Inferential Questions

• Mixed Methods Research Questions and Hypotheses Example 7.8. Hypotheses and Research Questions in a Mixed Methods Study

Example 7.9. A Mixed Methods Question Written Using Methods and Content Language

Research Questions and Hypothesis

• Investigators place signposts to carry the reader through a plan for a study.

• An important signpost is the research question or the hypothesis that narrows the purpose statement to predictions about what will be learned or questions to be answered in the study.

Qualitative Research Questions• Qualitative researchers pose research questions

– Not objectives– Not hypotheses

• Two types of qualitative research questions to focus a study's purpose:– Central question

• Broad question that asks for exploration of the central phenomenon

– Subquestions• Questions that narrow the focus of the study

Writing Qualitative Research Questions

• Ask 1-2 central questions, these should be broad and ask for an explanation of the central phenomenon or concept in the study. Here the intent is to explore the general factors relevant to the central phenomenon.

• Ask no more than 5-7 subquestions these will narrow the study but leave open the questioning.

• Relate the central question to the strategy of inquiry:– Ethnography, questions verify accuracy of data– Critical ethnography, questions build on an existing body of literature– Phenomenology, questions broadly stated without specific reference

to existing literature– Grounded theory, questions generate a theory

Writing Qualitative Research Questions

• Begin with "what" or "how” to convey an open or emerging design

• Focus on a single phenomenon or concept, what is the one single concept, that you want to explore?

• Use exploratory verbs as nondirectional rather than directional words, like affect, influence, impact, determine, cause and relate

• Use open-ended questions without reference to the literature or theory

• Specify the participants and research site (unless stated previously)

A Script for Writing a Qualitative Central Question

• (How or What) is the (“story for” for narrative research; “meaning of” the phenomenon for phenomenology; “theory that explains the process of ” for grounded theory; “culture-sharing pattern” for ethnography; “issue” in the “case” for case study) of (central phenomenon) for (participants) at (research site).

A Qualitative Central Question From an Ethnography

Qualitative Central Questions From a Case Study

Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses

• Quantitative researchers pose research questions or hypotheses and objectives to focus the study's purpose

• Quantitative research questions:– Questions about the relationships among variables that the investigator seeks

to know

• Quantitative hypotheses:– Predictions that the researcher makes about the expected relationships

among variables– Predictions about the population values that the researcher will estimate

based on data from a sample

• Quantitative objectives:– Indicate a study's goals– Used frequently in proposals for funding

Writing Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses

• Write questions or hypotheses, not both • Consider 3 approaches to the variables for a question or hypothesis:

– Compare groups– Relate variables– Describe responses

• Specify questions and hypotheses based on theory if possible• Measure the independent and dependent variables separately• Generally use demographic information as intervening variables • Use consistent words and ordering for independent and dependent

variables

Scripts for Writing Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses

• Quantitative research question describing outcomes: What is the frequency and variation of scores on ____________ (name the

variable) for ______________(participants) in the study?

• Quantitative research question focused on examining the relationship among variables:

Does _________ (name the theory) explain the relationship between _________ (independent variable) and _________ (dependent variable), controlling for the effects of _________ (control variable)?

• Quantitative null hypothesis: There is no significant difference between _________ (the control and

experimental groups on the independent variable) on _________ (dependent variable).

Forms for Writing Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses

• The use of variables in research questions or hypothesis if one wants to do:An experiment or group comparisonsA survey that correlates variablesA descriptive study

• Write research questions and hypothesis that logically follow from relationship among variables in a theory

• Research questions or hypothesis may indicate cause and effect logic

• Research questions and hypothesis should have no redundancies, do not write both

A Null Hypothesis

Directional Hypotheses

Forms for Writing Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses

• If writing hypotheses, use a consistent form:– Null hypotheses (predict no difference or no relationship)– Alternative hypothesis or directional hypotheses (predict direction of

difference or relationship)– Nondirectional hypotheses (predict a difference or relationship, but not its

direction)• Use non demographic variables • Use the same pattern of word order in the questions or

hypotheses to enable a reader to easily identify the major variables

• If writing research questions:– First, specify descriptive questions for each important variable– Next, state inferential questions that relate variables or compare groups– Finally, add questions in which variables are controlled

Nondirectional and Directional Hypotheses

Standard Use of Language in Hypotheses

A Model for Descriptive Questions and Hypotheses

Mixed Methods Research Questions and Hypotheses

• Advance both qualitative and quantitative research questions (or hypotheses) in order to narrow and focus the purpose statement – Use guidelines for writing good qualitative and quantitative questions

and hypotheses– Order questions to match the mixed methods design

• In a two-phase design, order to match the phases• In a one-phase design, order according to the method given the most

weight

• Include a mixed methods research question that:– Conveys the methods and procedures– Conveys the content of the study – Combines the methods and content

Different Ways to Write Questions and Hypotheses into a Mixed Methods Study

• Write separate qualitative questions and quantitative questions or hypotheses:– At the beginning or as they emerge in phases– This places emphasis on the two approaches

• Write separate questions or hypotheses followed by a mixed methods question:– This highlights the two approaches as well as their combined

strength

• Write only a mixed methods question:– This emphasizes the integration and not the individual parts

Hypotheses and Research Questions in a Mixed Methods Study