CHAPTER OUTCOMES

This chapter focuses on British North Americaafter the American Revolution. By the end ofthis chapter, you will

• analyse the causes of the AmericanRevolution and make judgements about itsnature and effects

• critically evaluate the contributions of theLoyalists to the development of Canada

• outline the history of the events thatconstitute the American War ofIndependence

• synthesize information about pioneersociety in Upper Canada and drawconclusions about social distinctions

• evaluate the role of women in pioneer life

• describe major events in the War of 1812

• compare American republicanism withBritish colonial rule

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Roughing it in the BushExcerpts from the journals of fQ:

Susanna Moodie, an Upper Canada >:..:..:../•pioneer

Susanna Moodie came to Upper Canada with her husband from England, in 1832-the end of theperiod covered in this chapter. Although the country had changed somewhat between the end of theWar of 1812 and the arrival of the Moodies, this account from her book, Roughing it in the Bush,does illustrate what immigrants to early Canada had to endure. Although Susanna was from aprosperous family, her husband, whom she calls "Moodie," was not so well off. An ex-army officer,he was a younger son, and could not expect a large inheritance. In one of the excerpts that follows,you will read about the couple's arrival at their farm in the forests of Upper Canada.

Can you detect any of Susanna's prejudices? She was, after all, from the British privilegedclasses.

Introduction toRoughing in the Bush

Notbeing over-gifted

with the good thingsof this world-theyounger sons of old

British families seldom are-he[Susanna's husband] had, aftermature deliberation, determinedto try his fortunes in Canada,and settle upon the grant of 400acres of land ceded to officersupon half-pay.

Emigration, in most cases-and ours is no exception to thegeneral rule-is a matter ofnecessity, not choice.

This was our case, and ourmotive for emigrating to one ofthe British colonies can besummed up in a few words.

The emigrant's hope ofbettering his condition and

286

securing a sufficient competenceto support his family, to freehimself from the slightingremarks too often hurled at thepoor gentleman by the practicalpeople of the world, which isalways galling to a proud man,but doubly so when he knowsthat the want of wealthconstitutes the sale differencebetween him and the morefavoured offspring of the sameparent stock.

In 1830, the great tide ofemigration flowed westward.Canada became the greatlandmark for the rich in hopeand poor in purse. Publicnewspapers and private lettersteemed with the almost fabulousadvantages to be derived from asettlement in this highlyfavoured region. Men who hadbeen doubtful of supporting their

families in comfort at home,thought they had only to land inCanada to realize a fortune. Theinfection became general ...thousands and tens of thousandsfrom the middle ranks of Britishsociety landed upon theseshores.

A large majority of theseemigrants were officers of thearmy and navy, with theirfamilies-a class perfectlyunfitted by their previous habitsand standing in society forcontending with the sternrealities of emigrant life in thebackwoods. A class formedmainly from the younger [sons]of great families, naturallyproud, and not only accustomedto command but to receiveimplicit obedience from thepeople under them, are not menadapted to the hard toil of the

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Susanna and her husband discuss coming to Canada.

woodsman's life. Nor will suchpersons submit cheerfully to thesaucy familiarity of servants,who, republicans at heart, thinkthemselves quite as good as theiremployers ....

It is to warn such settlers asthese last mentioned not to takeup grants and pitch their tents inthe wilderness, and by doing soreduce themselves and theirfamilies to hopeless poverty, thatmy work, Roughing it in theBush, was written.

I am well aware that a greatand, I must think, a most unjustprejudice has been felt againstmy book in Canada because Idared give my opinion freely on asubject which had engrossed agreat deal of my attention; nordo I believe that the account of

our failure in the bush everdeterred a single emigrant fromcoming to the country, as theonly circulation it had in thecolony was chiefly through thevolumes that often formed aportion of their baggage. Themany who have condemned thework without reading it will besurprised to find not one wordhas been said to prejudiceintending emigrants frommaking Canada their home.Unless, indeed, they ascribe theregret expressed at having toleave my native land, so naturalin the painful home-sicknesswhich, for several months, preysupon the health and spirits of thedejected exile, to a deep-rooteddislike of the country.

So far from this being the

case, my love for the country hassteadily increased from year toyear, and my attachment toCanada is now so strong that Icannot imagine any inducement,short of absolute necessity,which would induce me to leavethe colony where, as a wife andmother, some of the happiestyears of my life have been spent.

Arriving in CanadaThe dreadful cholera wasdepopulating Quebec andMontreal when our ship castanchor off Grosse Isle ... and wewere boarded a few minutes afterby the health officers ....

By daybreak all was hurryand confusion onboard the Anne.I watched boat after boat depart

287

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •for the island, full of people andgoods, and envied them theglorious privilege of once morestanding firmly on the earth aftertwo long months of rocking androlling at sea. How ardently weanticipate pleasure, which oftenends in positive pain! Such wasmy case when at last indulged inthe gratification so eagerlydesired. As cabin passengers wewere not included in the generalorder of purification, but wereonly obliged to send our servant,with the clothes and bedding wehad used during the voyage, onshore, to be washed.

The ship was emptied of allher live cargo. My husband wentoff with the boats ... and I wasleft alone with my baby in theotherwise empty vessel. EvenOscar, the Captain's Scotchterrier, who had formed adevoted attachment to me

during the voyage, forgot hisallegiance, became possessed ofthe land mania, and was awaywith the rest. With the mostintense desire to go onshore, Iwas doomed to look and longand envy every boatful ofemigrants that glided past. Norwas this all, the ship was out ofprovisions, and I was condemnedto undergo a rigid fast until thereturn of the boat, when thecaptain had promised a supply offresh butter and bread. Thevessel had been nine weeks atsea; the poor steerage passengersfor the two last weeks had beenout of food, and the captain hadbeen obliged to feed them fromthe ship's stores. The promisedbread was to be obtained from asmall steamboat which plieddaily between Quebec and theisland, transporting convalescentemigrants and their goods in her

Susanna watches as the other passengers are forced to go ashore and wash. Her servantmust follow them.

288

upward trip and provisions forthe sick on her return.

How I reckoned on once moretasting bread and butter! The verythought of the treat in storeserved to sharpen my appetite andrender the long fast moreirksome. I could now fully realizeall Mrs. Bowdich's longings forEnglish bread and butter, after herthree years' travel through theburning African desert with hertalented husband ...

After the execrable messes,and the hard ship-biscuit,imagine the luxury of a goodslice of English bread andbutter ...

As the sun rose above thehorizon, all these matter-of-factcircumstances were graduallyforgotten and merged in thesurpassing grandeur of the scenethat rose majestically before me.The previous day had been darkand stormy, and a heavy fog hadconcealed the mountain chain,which forms the stupendousbackground to this sublimeview, entirely from our sight. Asthe clouds rolled away from theirgrey, bald brows, and cast intodenser shadow the vast forestbelt that girdled them round,they loomed out like mightygiants-Titans of the earth, in alltheir rugged and awful beauty-athrill of wonder and delightpervaded my mind. Thespectacle floated dimly on mysight-my eyes were blindedwith tears-blinded by an excessof beauty. I turned to the rightand to the left, I looked up anddown the glorious river, neverhad beheld so many strikingobjects blended into one mightywhole! Nature had lavished allher noblest features in producingthat enchanting scene.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Susanna is shocked by the sight of people washing in public.

• • •It was four o'clock when welanded on the rocks, which therays of an intensely scorchingsun had rendered so hot that Icould scarcely place my footupon them. How the peoplewithout shoes bore it I cannotimagine. Never shall I forget theextraordinary spectacle that metour sight the moment we passedthe low range of bushes whichformed a screen in front of theriver. A crowd of many hundredIrish emigrants had been landedduring the present and formerday and all this motley crew-men, women, and children, whowere not confined by sickness tothe sheds (which greatlyresembled cattle-pens)-were

employed in washing clothes orspreading them out on the rocksand bushes to dry.

The men and boys were inthe water, while the women,with their scanty garmentstucked above their knees, weretramping their bedding in tubs orin holes in the rocks, which theretiring tide had left half full ofwater. Those who did notpossess washing tubs, pails, oriron pots, or could not obtainaccess to a hole in the rocks,were running to and fro,screaming and scolding, in nomeasured terms. The confusionof Babel was among them. Alltalkers and no hearers-eachshouting and yelling in his or heruncouth dialect, and all

accompanying theirvociferations with violent andextraordinary gestures, quiteincomprehensible to theuninitiated. We were literallystunned by the strife of tongues.I shrank, with feelings almostakin to fear, from the hard-featured, sunburnt women asthey elbowed rudely past me.

I had heard and read much ofsavages, and have since seen,during my long residence in thebush, somewhat of uncivilizedlife, but the Indian is one ofNature's gentlemen-he neversays or does a rude or vulgarthing. The vicious, uneducatedbarbarians, who form the surplusof overpopulous Europeancountries, are far behind the wild

289

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •digression, and has nothing to dowith our unseen dwelling. Thereader must bear with me in myfits of melancholy, and take meas I am.

It was the 22nd Septemberthat we left the SteamboatHotel, to take possession of ournew abode. During the threeweeks we had sojourned at___ , I had not seen a drop ofrain, and I began to think thatthe fine weather would lastforever; but this eventful dayarose in clouds. Moodie hadhired a covered carriage toconvey the baby, the servant-maid, and myself to the farm, as

our driver prognosticated a wetday; while he followed with TomWilson and the teams thatconveyed our baggage.

The scenery through whichwe were passing was so new tome, so unlike anything that I hadever beheld before, that, in spiteof its monotonous character, itwon me from my melancholy,and I began to look about mewith considerable interest. Notso my English servant, whodeclared that the woods werefrightful to look upon; that itwas a country only fit for wildbeasts; that she hated it with allher heart and soul, and would goback as soon as she was able.

About a mile from the placeof our destination the rain beganto fall in torrents, and the air,which had been balmy as aspring morning, turned as chillyas that of a November day.Hannah shivered; the baby cried,and I drew my summer shawl asclosely round as possible, toprotect her from the suddenchange in our hitherto delightfultemperature. Just then, thecarriage turned into a narrow,steep path, overhung with loftywoods, and, after labouring up itwith considerable difficulty, andat the risk of breaking our necks,it brought us at length to a rockyupland clearing, partially coveredwith a second growth of timber,and surrounded on all sides bythe dark forest.

"I guess," quoth our Yankeedriver, "that at the bottom ofthis 'ere swell you'll findyourself to hum"; and plunginginto a short path cut through thewood, he pointed to a miserablehut at the bottom of a steepdescent, and cracking his whip,exclaimed, " 'Tis a smart

location that. I wish youBritishers may enjoy it."

I gazed upon the place withperfect dismay, for I had neverseen such a shed called a housebefore. "You must be mistaken;for that is not a house, but acattle-shed, or pig-sty."

The man turned hisknowing, keen eye upon me, andsmiled, half-humorously, half-maliciously, as he said:

"You were raised in the oldcountry, I guess; you have muchto learn, and more, perhaps, thanyou'll like to know, before thewinter is over."

I was perfectly bewildered-Icould only stare at the place,with my eyes swimming in tears;but, as the horses plunged downinto the broken hollow, myattention was drawn from mynew residence to the perils whichendangered life and limb at everystep. The driver, however, waswell used to such roads, and,steering as dexterously betweenthe black stumps, at length droveup, not to the door, for there wasnone to the house, but to theopen space from which thatabsent, but very necessary,appendage had been removed.Three young steers and twoheifers, which the driverproceeded to drive out, werequietly reposing upon the floor.A few strokes of his whip, and aloud burst of gratuitous curses,soon effected an ejectment; and Idismounted, and took possessionof this untenable tenement.Moodie was not yet in sight withthe teams. I begged the man tostay until he arrived, as I feltterrified at being left alone in thiswild, strange-looking place. Helaughed, as well he might, at ourfears, and said he had a long way

291

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

ACTIVITIES

Susanna and Hannah wait for the others and ponder their "folly" in coming to Canada.

to go, and must be off; then,cracking his whip, and noddingto the girl, who was crying aloud,he went his way, and Hannahand myself were left standing inthe middle of the dirty floor.

The prospect was indeeddreary. Without, pouring rain;

within, a fireless hearth; a roomwith but one window, and thatcontaining only one pane ofglass; not an article of furnitureto be seen, save an old paintedpine-wood cradle, which hadbeen left there by some freak offortune. This, turned upon its

side, served us for a seat, andthere we impatiently awaited thearrival of Moodie, Wilson, and aman whom the former had hiredthat morning to assist on thefarm. Where they were all to bestowed might have puzzled amore sagacious brain than mine.It is true there was a loft, but Icould see no way of reaching it,for ladder there was none, so weamused ourselves, while waitingfor the coming of our party, byabusing the place, the country,and our own dear selves for ourfolly in coming to it.

emigration: the leaving of one's homecountry for a new land or country

slighting: hurtful

republican: someone who does not acceptthat countries should have monarchs

inducement: good reason

execrable messes: bad meals in a "mess,"or community eating area

Babel: a reference to the biblical tower ofBabel, built by builders who spoke manydifferent languages

uncouth dialect: improper speech

vociferation: yelling

melancholy: deep sadness

dexterously: skilfully

gratuitous: unnecessary

untenable tenement: a house that is unfitfor living

1. Read Susanna's introduction to her book. Do youthink she would consider herself a Canadian, orBritish? Explain your answer.

2. Although it is unfair to judge the people ofanother age by our own modern standards, it isalso important that we try to learn how peoplethought in other times. Susanna's attitude towardsthe "lower classes" was quite usual for her day,but her bigotry shows an unpleasant side of the

times in which she lived. Find examples ofSusanna's class prejudice.

3. Susanna was shocked when she saw her newhome. What changes do you think she would beforced to make if she was to survive in the woodsof Upper Canada. What skills might she need tolearn? How would you feel if you were in hershoes?

292

BATTLE OF THEPLAINS OFABRAHAM

TREATY OFPARIS ENDSSEVEN YEARS'WAR

1763 ROYALPROCLAMATIONLIMITS GROWTHOF AMERICANCOLONIES

1765 STAMP ACTPASSED

1766 STAMP ACTREPEALED

1768 BIRTH OFTECUMSEH

1774 QUEBEC ACTPASSED

1775 AMERICANREVOLUTIONBEGINS

AMERICANDECLARATION OFINDEPENDENCE

AMERICANREVOLUTIONENDS WITHAMERICANVICTORY

FRENCHREVOLUTIONBEGINS

CONSTITUTIONALACT CREATESENGLISHUPPER CANADAAND FRENCHLOWER CANADA

1793 BRITISH ATWAR WITHREVOLUTIONARYFRANCE

1812 WAR BREAKSOUT BETWEENBRITISH NORTHAMERICA ANDTHE UNITEDSTATES

1815 END OF THEWAR OF 1812

1832 SUSANNAMOODIE ARRIVESIN CANADA

Ambition, we well know, an exorbitant love of power and thirst for riches,a certain impatience of government, by some people called liberty-allthese motives, clad under the garb of patriotism and even of ... reason,have been the secret but true foundations of this as well as many otherrevolutions.

-HECTOR ST. JOHN CREVECOEUR

You have already learned about the French Revolution and the motives of those behind it. This remarkby a well-known Loyalist-someone who wouldn't have supported the drive for independence by theAmerican colonies-suggests even more motives. Do you think that people who revolt are really justinterested in more power and money?

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND BRITISH NORTH AMERICA 293

New Englanders: thesettlers of the ThirteenColonies

United Empire Loyalist:one who is faithful, orloyal, to Britain

Upper Canada: "up" thest. Lawrence River; partof present-day Ontario

Lower Canada: "down"the st. Lawrence River;part of present-dayQuebec

294 CHAPTER 10

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••INTRODUCTION

The thirteen Americancolonies, along the Atlanticcoast, were the mostimportant part of British

North America. You first read aboutthe British colonies in Chapter 2.True, the whole of northern Canadawas controlled by the BritishHudson's Bay Company, and Acadiaand Newfoundland were British. Butthe American colonies-New York,Massachusetts, Maryland, and all theothers-had large populations andgrowing economies. They wereimportant customers for the productsmade by British factories. Moreover,New Englanders saw themselves asEnglish. Their culture was primarilyEnglish, and they were patriotic andloyal to Britain. The ThirteenAmerican colonies were a jewel in thecrown of the British Empire, and agreat source of pride.

But any dream that the wholecontinent might one day be Britishdid not survive long after the fall ofNew France: thirteen years after thesigning of the Treaty of Paris, in 1763,the American colonies would declareindependence from Britain in the

General James Murray, who laterbecame governor of Quebec,

burned the farms of soldiers servingin the French militia to force them todesert the army of the Marquis deVaudreuil, then the governor ofQuebec. Murray's words show himto have been compassionate, butalso willing to use harsh measures,common in his day, to defeat theenemy. What would your responsehave been, had you been a Frenchhabitant of the time?

midst of a revolution that wouldeventually create the United States.

The loss of the American empirewould force the British to focus ontheir remaining territories to thenorth. Canada itself was French.Beyond the Great Lakes and theAppalachian Mountains, the FirstNations kept their ancestral lands andparticipated in the fur trade. A Britishdesire to make these possessionsmore English was helped by thearrival of United Empire Loyalistsettlers from the new United States.These Loyalists often had no optionbut to come to Canada or return toBritain. As Loyalists, they settled onfertile farm lands in the Maritimes, inQuebec, and in what would laterbecome Ontario.

The Loyalists and their followerswould eventually win their owncolonial government. They wanted tobe separate from Quebec and liveunder British laws. In 1791, Quebecwas divided into Upper and LowerCanada. Upper Canada and LowerCanada, along with Nova Scotia,Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland,New Brunswick, Rupert's Land, and

I was under the mel Qnecessity of burning the f ( ":':greatest part of these \ ....•..... ./poor unhappy peoples' ........•. 'houses ... I pray God this examplemay suffice [be enough], for mynature revolts when this becomes anecessary part of my duty.

-British General Murray, 1760

the millions of square kilometresunder the Hudson Bay Company'scontrol, became British NorthAmerica.

In this chapter, you will learnabout the colony of Upper Canada,later to be called "Ontario," and the

west. This was an area of greatgrowth during the nineteenthcentury. Many of the institutions thatdominated Canada's early history firstdeveloped in these regions, oftenunder threat from our Americanneighbours to the south.

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••AFTER THE FALL OF QUEBEC

AFTER THECAPTUREYou learned in Chapter 8 that thefortress and city of Quebecsurrendered to the British in 1759.However, peace was not immediate. Anumber of skirmishes erupted in andaround the battered city. In 1760, theBritish fought, and almost lost, a major

battle at Ste Foy. Montreal was held bythe French governor, the Marquis deVaudreuil, until September 8 of thesame year. Realizing that no help fromFrance could come up the St.Lawrence, Vaudreuil surrenderedCanada to the British.

Canada's surrender, and theTreaty of Paris in 1763, ended thewars between Britain and France forcontrol of North America. Accordingto the terms of the treaty, France gave

Figure 10-1 This engravingshows the Notres-Dames des-Victoires Church in Quebec'supper town after the Britishbombardment in 1759. Theupper town of Quebec wasbadly damaged by Britishcannon fire during the siege.After the fall of the city,however, the British treatedthe French reasonably well.What problems would theBritish conquerors have hadto deal with immediately?

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND BRITISH NORTH AMERICA 295

Figure 10-2 The spirit of France, shown as an angel, offers the keysto Quebec (in the background) to Britannia, the spirit of Britain. Inwhich country would this plaque have been produced? Why mightfemale "spirits" have been chosen to represent the two countries?

Treaty of Paris, 1763

ARCTICOCEAN

PACIFICOCEAN

ATLANTICOCEAN

oI

500

o Britaino Spaino France

- French fishing rightso Russiao Territory unclaimed

by Europeans

Figure 10-3 This map shows which parts of North America wereclaimed by various European powers after the Treaty of Paris in 1763.

296 CHAPTER 10

up all rights and colonies in NorthAmerica to Britain, except forLouisiana and the city of NewOrleans, which she gave to Spain, andthe islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon,near Newfoundland, which Franceretained. In exchange, she receivedMartinique, Guadaloupe, and someother sugar islands in the Caribbean.Intendant Francois Bigot andVaudreuil went into exile in France,where they were arrested and brieflyimprisoned in the Bastille.

QUEBEC ACCEPTSBRITISH RULEThe people of the newly conqueredterritories of New France were notgiven much say in their owngovernment. After all, they were the"enemy," as far as the British wereconcerned. Similarly, the Frenchcolonists did not expect to be givenmany rights. Democracy was more orless unknown in France and hercolonies at this time.

The British did not have any wayto rule a conquered enemy except byusing the army as police and armyofficers as judges. In other words,Quebec came under military rule.Soldiers and guard posts were set upeverywhere.

Although the British had hopedthat French Canadians would forgettheir language and traditions andbecome English, this would nothappen. The first British governor,Guy Carleton, realized that theFrench would not abandon their ownways of living-especially theirlanguage and religion. Besides,Governor Carleton rather liked theway he could get along with theFrench through priests and seigneurs.

The British treated the Canadiensreasonably well, paying for supplieswith money rather than simplytaking things. Guns were allowed for

hunting. Many French Captains ofMilitia kept their jobs and settledminor disputes. Governors-allBritish aristocrats-admired the waythe Canadiens conducted themselves,not like the unruly Anglo-Americansto the south, or the English tradersand merchants who had followed thevictorious army into Quebec.

After the fall of New France, theimportant French fur merchantsdeparted for France or went south toLouisiana. Their place was taken byScottish and American traders, whobased themselves in Montreal. These"Montrealers" were much too rowdyand independent for the Britishgovernors. They took over the fur-trading routes to the west andexpanded them, using FrenchCanadians as voyageurs andinterpreters. As you learned inChapter 9, some Montrealers wouldlater form the North West Company,and send explorers to the PacificOcean.

NATIVE PEOPLES'RESISTANCETo the west-around the GreatLakes and beyond-things were notso peaceful. Ancient tradingnetworks that had included theFrench still existed, but the Nativetraders were not at all happy withthe results of the Seven Years' War.French traders still operating in theterritories of the Ottawas, Miamis,and others, urged their friends toresist the British, who wanted totake over the trade. The Nativepeoples knew that British and Anglo-American traders and settlers were aserious threat to their way of life.

Several Native chiefs protested tothe British authorities in Canada, butthe British did little to help. Therewere reasons for this. Scottish traders,in particular, were supported by

The following is a Britishofficer's description of the

traders and land-seekers whofollowed the army into Britishterritory. The term "vice anddebauchery" used here

describes people who wereextremely dishonest, sinful, andprobably murderous. Why doyou think the British allowedsuch people into the territory?

The most worthless and abandoned fellowsin the Provinces, being proficient in all sortsof vice and debauchery.

-A British Officer, 17610·····:······.- .. . . .

{....::...•....•..:~.)

Figure 10-4 This drawing, made in 1805, showsa woman and a man wearing clothes typical of theperiod. By the end of the eighteenth century, theresidents of Lower Canada were using importedBritish cloth to make their clothes. Somehabitants also developed a taste for Britishcustoms, such as drinking tea instead of coffee.

Captain of Militia: militaryofficers

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND BRITISH NORTH AMERICA 297

Figure 10-5 This mapshows how Nativesettlements intersectedFrench and British territoryin many areas. What effectwould this have on theBritish push to take over thefur trade?

land speculator: onewho buys and sellsland with theexpectation of profit

Figure 10-6 Ottawachiefs, wearing large silverornaments and ceremonialclothes, were painted byJoshua Jebb in the earlynineteenth century. Likely,Pontiac would have wornsimilar clothing. Without apicture of Pontiac, it isdifficult to imagine thepower of his personality,which helped him toorganize resistance to theBritish. What evidence oftrading can you find in thispicture?

HUDSON BAY

1\A ACHE

GULF OF MEXICO

298 CHAPTE R 10

ATLANTICOCEAN

Disputed Lands

o 200 400 km,

Scottish members of the Britishparliament, Large British factoriessold goods through the traders anddid not want this trade to stop, Inaddition, land speculators,including important Anglo-Americans such as GeorgeWashington and Benjamin Franklin,had lots of support for theiractivities in Britain,

Finally, the Ottawa chief,Pontiac, tried to unite the tribes tofight the British, He dreamed ofbuilding a single aboriginal nation inthe interior of North America,Pontiac was a great leader, but hecould not win military support fromthe French, which he needed, Instead,powerful British forces defeatedPontiac and his warriors, Sir WilliamJohnson, a friend of the Mohawks,called a peace conference that splitPontiac's remaining supporters,

• .=.==::C=.I-=:':::='II~=--=::'::=. desirable areas. It also meant that theNative peoples would be satisfied,because settlers and traders would notbe able to enter their territorywithout permission.

It now seemed to the coloniststhat the British government wasmuch more interested in what wasgood for Britain than in helping theAnglo-Americans. They alsosuspected-and they were more orless correct-that the British did notregard them as true equals. The RoyalProclamation of 1763was animportant event. Indirectly, it was acause of the American Revolution,which resulted in the creation of theUnited States.

o 200 400 km1 '

Figure 10-7 This copy of a British Army map of 1767 shows what lands Americans were forbidden tosettle (west of the red line). Unfortunately, some American settlers were already on the wrong side ofthe line. Many others saw the Royal Proclamation as a temporary measure and began secretly scoutingout lands for speculation.

A ROYALPROCLAMATIONANGERS THEAMERICANSPontiac may have been defeated, buthis resistance forced the Britishgovernment to rethink their policy inAmerica. In 1763, the king issued aRoyal Proclamation-anannouncement that had the force oflaw. It cut off land speculation to thewest of the Appalachian Mountains.This meant that settlers from theThirteen Colonies could not moveinto the Ohio Valley and other

/

DI D YOU KNOW?The Royal Proclamation wasan order from the king ofGreat Britain and thegovernment. It officiallyrecognized that most of thelands west of theAppalachian Mountainsbelonged to the Nativepeoples. The RoyalProclamation has neverbeen cancelled, and manyNative land claims refer toit. Lawyers have arguedbefore the Supreme Courtof Canada that thegovernment must recognizethe Royal Proclamation.

N

*

land claim: a legal claim toone's original territory

ATLANTICOCEAN

- Proclamation Lineof 1763

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND BRITISH NORTH AMERICA 299

The Effect of theRoyal Proclamation

"----\.-

\~ ~(E(~l\.) (

I

I S

SPANISHLOUISIANA

GULF OF MEXICO

€ROSST;URRENT?J

Weapons of Mass DestructionYOU have probably heard

about modern weapons ofmass destruction in the news.Many nations manufacturesuch weapons for use againstenemies. Some biologicalweapons are designed tospread deadly diseases thatcan kill whole populations.

In the 1760s, thecommander of the British armyin New France, JeffreyAmherst, deliberately spreaddeadly small pox to theaboriginal peoples by orderinghis soldiers to give awayblankets infected with thedisease. We do not know howmany people died, but manyIndians caught small pox andso were unable to fight withPontiac against the British.Over time, small pox and otherEuropean diseases killedmillions of Native people.

Figure 10-8 These United Nations inspectors are searching for hidden stocks ofchemical and biological weapons. Some of these contain new and deadly germsagainst which there is no resistance. Some are so deadly that mere skin contact canresult in death. Iraq is not alone in stockpiling such weapons. The United States, Russia,and many other nations have them as well. Even Canada has stocked nerve gas andgerm-warfare weapons.

WHAT DO YOU THINK?.••.•.•••..•...••..••....••..•..•..••..••••....•..••.•.

1. Many nations argue that terror weapons, such asgerm-warfare bombs, keep others from attacking,and therefore keep the peace. What is youropinion of these weapons?

2. In your opinion, should Jeffrey Amherst have beencharged as a war criminal? Would he be socharged today? Draw up a charge against Amherstfor use before the International Court, which is atthe Hague, in Holland.

biological weapon: aweapon that attackshumans by makingthem ill

THE QUEBEC ACTThe British government had nointention of keeping Quebec undermilitary rule forever. In 1774, itpassed the Quebec Act, making theconquered territory into a new Britishcolony. In general, the Act was goodfor Canada and for the Frenchpopulation. But it caused majorproblems with the Americans, who

300 CHAPTER 10

disagreed with almost every part of it.The Quebec Act recognized the

importance of the Catholic Church,kept French law for business andpersonal law matters, and introducedEnglish criminal law. It also madeQuebec larger by setting its boundariesfarther to the north and west.

Unknown to French Canada,however, the Quebec Act containedsecret instructions to the governor.The governor was to introduce

1. Imagine a peace conference between Pontiac andthe former Native allies of the French on one side,and the British and Anglo-Americans on the other.After consulting maps of eastern and central NorthAmerica, create a list of terms which you thinkPontiac might accept from the British and theAmericans. Develop a list of counter-terms.

2. What was the purpose of the Royal Proclamationof 1763? Why is it still important?

3. Why do you think lawyers in land-claims trials referto the Royal Proclamation of 1763 more than two-hundred years after it was proclaimed?

English Civil law and suppress theCatholic Church. The Canadienswere not to know of these plans.When the Bishop of Quebec found outabout these secret instructions,Governor Carleton promised that hewould follow the original plans setout in the Act.

On the surface, the Quebec Actseemed to respect the rights ofCanadiens, but it also retained the oldfeudal rights of the Church and theseigneurs. Many habitants werebitterly disappointed. They expectedto get an elected assembly-as thethirteen American colonies had-andto keep their language and traditions.The system remained basically thesame, however, but with a differentsovereign-hardly the progress forwhich they had hoped.

The Quebec Act was designed tokeep the Canadiens loyal to Britain.In the Thirteen Colonies to the south,the bond between American colonistsand Britain was at the breaking point.The Quebec Act made things worse.Americans wanted to expand into theOhio Valley, but were now absolutelyprevented from doing so. Moreover,Quebec did not have an electedassembly, an ominous sign to

Figure 10-9 Historians have debated whetherGuy Carleton secretly "leaked" Britain's plansfor Quebec to the Bishop of Quebec. Politiciansoften do this today. Why might Carleton havedone such a thing?

American colonists, who had suchassemblies and wanted moredemocracy. For the Anglo-Americans,the Quebec Act was "intolerable" andlead straight to the AmericanRevolution.

ACTIVITIES

4. Why do you think the government hasdownplayed the Royal Proclamation in regard toland claims?

5. Do a PMI chart on the Quebec Act. For moreinformation on creating a PMI, see page 143. Inyour PMI, refer to the government of the ThirteenColonies.

6. Keeping in mind that only an aristocrat could be aBritish governor, and that all male aristocrats eitherinherited their father's estates or went into thearmy or church, make up an ad for a governor toreplace the fired General Murray.

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTIONAND BRITISHNORTH AMERICA 301

Figure 10-10 Williamsburg,the capital of Virginia, was aprosperous town supportedby agriculture, especially thegrowing of tobacco. Lookcarefully at this engraving.Note the large houses,withornamental gardens, that linethis tidy street. How wouldthese people react if Britishtroops were sent to "keepthe peace"?

302 CHAPTER 10

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••THE AMERICA.N REVOLUTION

The British thought theAmerican colonists weretroublesome andargumentative. They had

stirred up trouble with both theFrench and the Native peoples, andusually lost the fights in which theybecame involved. Time and again,British troops and ships had broughtvictory, but military actions costmoney. These victories were beingsubsidized by Britain's taxpayers. Itseemed only right that Americansshould pay part of the bill. When theBritish government tried to taxAmericans-without theiragreement-they resisted. Theyconsidered this a great insult. Notonly were they cut off from the OhioValley by the Royal Proclamation andthe Quebec Act, but they were beingtaxed like second-class citizens.

The leaders of the Americansfound it difficult to oppose the British.Each colony was separate and had itsown legislature. People had no realsense of themselves as Americans, theway citizens of the United States dotoday. They identified with the colonyin which they lived-Virginia,Maryland, New York, and so forth.

Many had close links with Britain andeven owned property in the homecountry. There were also strongbusiness ties between Britain andNorth America. As a manufacturingnation, Britain used raw materialsfrom North America in its factories,and sent back manufactured goods.The potential loss of this closerelationship troubled business peopleon both sides of the Atlantic.

The Americans knew they neededto present a united front to Britain.They decided, at the ContinentalCongress of 1774, to work together, inspite of what the British king wanted.This was the the first step towardscreating a new nation.

•TH E STAMP ACTThe idea that some people in theBritish Empire should do things ontheir own was beyond theunderstanding of many people in theroyal court and in the government. Soit was not surprising that Britainwould continue to pass more lawsthat would infuriate the Americans.

The Stamp Act of 1765 madeAmericans pay a small tax, similar totoday's Canadian Goods and ServicesTax, on many goods and mostgovernment services. The tax was inthe form of a stamp that people had tobuy and stick to everything, even adeck of cards. The money from theStamp Act was supposed to pay thecosts of defending the Americancolonies. It enraged Americans. Theyhad no representatives in the Britishparliament and knew they were beingtaxed without their consent. In theirown words, they refused "taxationwithout representation."

The Stamp Act had come just twoyears after the official end of theSeven Years' war, when Britain wasdeep in debt. When news of it arrivedin the towns of the colonies,newspapers and speakers took theprotest to the people. Officers of thecrown sent out to enforce the tax wereoften attacked. Some were tarred andfeathered, a painful and humiliatingexperience. Mobs destroyed thehouses of government officials.

The protests and generallawlessness alarmed the Englishparliament. Many politicians-andmany English people-sided with theAmericans. Moreover, few officialswere brave enough to force people touse the stamps. The Act was a

Figure 10-11George III was

the king ofEngland between1760 and 1820.

He was a sincereand honest ruler, but

he could not dealeffectively with the

American colonies. Inlater life, he suffered from

mental illness.

disaster, and everyone knew it. It wasrepealed in 1766. However, the Britishstill wanted to raise money. Theybrought in new taxes on tea and othergoods imported by the colonists.Again the Americans protested and,once again, the taxes were abolished,except for the tax on tea.

While the British governmentprobably saw itself as reasonable, theAmericans were unsettled. All kindsof regulations hurt merchants andtheir profits. Moreover, British troops

to tar and feather: tosmear with hot tar androll in feathers

to repeal: to take back

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND BRITISH NORTH AMERICA 303

Figure 10-12 Americanswere very upset by the StampAct. Pamphlets attacking thestamps helped spread theprotest. This "warningstamp" is one form ofprotest.

Figure 10-13 This engravingof British troops firing onhelpless people during theBoston Massacre was createdby Paul Revere. It appeared ina pro-American broadside,The Boston Gazette. Howmight a loyalist broadsidereport the same event?

304 CHAPTER 10

were everywhere, and Americans werebeing asked to put soldiers up in theirhouses, or pay for their lodging. In1770, nervous British soldiersmisunderstood an order and fired theirmuskets into a mob of Bostonprotesters, killing several people. Theso-called "Boston Massacre" hurt theBritish cause. Over the next few years,violent incidents proved that theAmerican colonies were on the brinkof revolution, led by colonial leadersand by people who now calledthemselves the "Sons of Liberty." In1773, about fifty Sons of Liberty,dressed as Mohawks, threw tea intothe harbour to protest the new TeaAct. The Boston Tea Party, as it

became known, was an importantevent. It was well-organized andsupervised by leaders, and was not theaction of a wild mob.

When the Quebec Act was passedin 1774, all the colonies sentdelegates to the First ContinentalCongress, in Philadelphia. TheCongress took the first steps towardfull independence from Britain. Theleaders soon demanded a boycott ofall goods from England, cuttingeconomic ties to the home country.British General Gage readied thethousands of British troops from hisheadquarters in Boston, and therebellious colonists began to train andto store weapons and ammunition.

J~Ml'P\.nOSTON! fee U,,-SOIlS deplore, ~r fc:>ld.UJgdlUpSf"Ollll\~s:e&QIIlA]]8Uill~\,"'\S"~nut Jo-.E<rr.lUnunons"'th.,,1 awJUl Goal.n)' haliowil\,",db bcun'card with guiIUef.<O., rn. If fp<edllcfs .s0l1""'"~ lab'rinswll Tongue ",~usTIl:lllliip.rth,,"MimlmofhisSoul:Vbile fmtblefsr-n and his favage nand.'. Q"if""'(;(I,ing \~'Qrldcan ought appeafe ShouldvenlllC-u the Jl:;n,daloftheLand.V,thlUw'd'"Qu.Rol1cour flretch O,;ir 1.1""''''1,,",,15; TIl< ~\Iai\ll~'cOI:ufts ofViclim.fuch •• thefe; SnAtch the ttIentlcCN.n.inliomhtt~.Likcfiereell~.n.uartntlS YUU1ll1$ 0('1' tl"'11 Il;T.'-; ic l Htl10ls ,:Op1.011S'1em'S for endl are !beef. KeenmC;r:il,uOll..i'Ql'l this Flttt~ m1cn.bd.\pprove LheCmJmg,c,l1Jiln. CJ1jC!" \h,' : I 1\', ~\ glorious'Inlnue wluch cnmMn.l theDead . SlWll-eadll\JUOOC'\d)onevc:r eaabebrilXl:

tlll~'r .,ht'/'/')I,-li"c/(,; 1:1 h" Ii" (Z·;.,: 3LIS ~)~ GI~A\~~tu.G1vfA,rEB.ICK.J..urfC""'Lmvr.u..C~Ft1S ATl'UCKS1fB\T~1t

. ;i',,/.-d.'Y,., " ·IN,. <', -: II",' • r //1, "I (CHl\r51"~:M:ONK "'JOJiNCI~\RK) IL<Jn'a~ .--.......

TH E REVOLUTIONBEGINSIt is straing that their warnt no morekilled, but they fird to high.

-AMOS BARRETT, COLONIAL MILITIA,LEXINGTON GREEN, APRIL 19,1775

The opening shots of the AmericanRevolution were fired on LexingtonGreen, in Massachusetts. As Britishand American soldiers faced eachother, the British told the Americansto leave and also ordered his soldiersnot to fire. The situation was tense.Because of the excitement, a shot wasfired-probably by an American. Thisso-called "shot heard round theworld" caused the British line to firetheir muskets at the Americans.

Although the Americans were drivenaway, surprisingly few were killed orwounded. On the road back to Boston,however, the British force wasattacked by militia from all over thecountryside, and many British soldierswere killed and wounded. The War ofthe American Revolution had begun,and there was no turning back.

THEREVOLUTIONARYWARAlmost everyone in America, andmany people in Britain, understood thatthe battle at Lexington was a majorevent. In England, many believed thatthe grievances of the Americans were

~YOUI<NOW?Only men-not women-who owned propeny andhad a certain income hadthe right to vote and toparticipate in the colonialgovernment. These were thepeople who had been hurtby British taxes andregulations. Catholics couldnot vote or hold anygovernment office. Nativepeoples had few rights,certainly not the vote.African Americans, most ofwhom were slaves, also hadno rights.

Figure 10-14 After thebattle at Lexington Green,the Americans tried to invadeQuebec. The invasion wasunsuccessful.

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND BRITISH NORTH AMERICA 305

just. Perhaps some compared theAmericans to the forces of parliamentin their own English Revolution.Although English democracy was notdemocratic the way our system istoday, the English themselves felt theyhad more rights than almost any othergroup of people in the world.

As for the Americans, they knewthey needed an army to fight theBritish on the battlefield. With thehelp of colonial leaders such asGeorge Washington (who wouldeventually become the first Americanpresident), the revolutionaries wereable to put together a sizable force. Inthe first major battle, near BunkerHill in Boston, the rebel army held itsown against crack British regiments.Around the same time, GeorgeWashington was made commander ofthe Continental Army.

The government of the unitedcolonies had not only cut ties to thehome country, it had also challengedthe military might of one of theworld's great powers. This wasserious business. Congress leadersfirst looked to defend the northernborders. They were sure that Quebec,Nova Scotia, and Newfoundlandwould join them in revolution. In anycase, British troops had to be stoppedfrom coming through the "back door"of Quebec. In the winter of 1775,Americans led by RichardMontgomery and Benedict Arnoldtried and failed to seize Quebec. Thefailure helped convince Canadians toremain loyal to Britain.

THEDECLARATION OFINDEPENDENCEThe American Revolution wasunderway, but it lacked an overall plan.Many of its leaders did not want tocompletely break with England. Indeed,

306 CHAPTER 10

the philosophy of the revolution itselfhad come from England. As you learnedin earlier chapters, the philosopher JohnLocke believed that people had theright to freedom and should be able torid themselves of a bad monarch.

While fighting continued on thebattlefield, the colonial delegates of theContinental Congress continued tomeet. It seemed obvious to mostdelegates that independence was reallythe only option. Some of the mostfamous and important people in thecolonies, such as Benjamin Franklin,Thomas Jefferson, and John Adams,were in agreement. Together, theydecided to draft a statement that woulddeclare their independence fromBritain. This document, mostly writtenby Thomas Jefferson, in 1776, is theAmerican Declaration of Independence,an important statement of principles ofdemocracy and freedom.

THE REVOLUTIONSUCCEEDSThe Declaration of Independence didnot end the revolutionary war. In fact,it caused King George and the Britishgovernment to enlarge the Britisharmy and navy, and the warcontinued for another seven years. Itcaused great hardship on both sides.When France joined the war on theside of the Americans, the Britishwere in serious trouble. French troopsswung the balance in favour of theAmericans. The British lost a wholearmy at the battle of Yorktown, in1781. Sir Guy Carleton surrenderedthe ports of Savannah and Charleston,before abandoning New York, the lastBritish stronghold in 1783. Therevolutionary war had ended.

The colonists, who had begun byprotesting taxes on tea, sugar, and paper,had won a revolution, and created thenew United States ofAmerica.

CATALOGUE CARDWhat is it? An excerpt

from the Declaration ofIndependence

Who wrote it? ThomasJefferson

When? 1776

Why? To create a .democratic republic

The American Declarationof Independence is one of

the most importantdocuments in world history.It established a new nationunlike any the world hadpreviously seen. This newnation, the United States,was based on the beliefthat all people have certainrights that no governmentcan take away.

Because he was well-schooled in the classicsand in English history,

We hold these truths to be self- Qevident that all men are created (. (' .) ..~equal, that they are endowed by·.. .their Creator with certain .inalienable rights, that among these areLife, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness.

Thomas Jefferson was asked to compose thedeclaration. He did so rather quickly, afterconsidering the advice of other delegates.

The Declaration of Independence includes somepowerful phrases. While it was a revolutionarydocument for its time, it is actually part of a greatchain of statements on human rights, beginning withthe ancient Greeks, and including the English MagnaCarta, the French Revolution's Declaration of Rightsof Man and the Citizen. Our own Charter of Rightsand Freedoms is a recent link in this "chain."

The ideals of the Declaration of Independencealso inspired others, including those men and womenwho overthrew King Louis XVI and Queen MarieAntoinette during the French Revolution. Todaypeople in the United States and Canada who feel theyhave been left out, or are being persecuted, demandthat their rights and freedoms be guaranteed in law.

inalienable: incapable of being taken away or transferred

Figure 10-15 Jefferson's original copy of the Declarationof Independence shows how hard it was to find just theright word. Just as you might do, he changed phrases toget the wording just right. The declaration first explainswhy the Americans want to be free. The second paragraphbegins with the famous phrase that demands the basichuman freedoms that people in democracies cherish.

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTIONAND BRITISHNORTHAMERICA 307

.............................................c::onlinued

ACTIVITIES

WHAT DO YOU THINK?1. Some groups, such as Amnesty

International, watch for human rightsabuses all over the world. Do you thinkwestern organizations such as this havethe right to criticize foreigngovern ments?

2. Are human rights really" inalienable"?How should these rights be protected?

3. Which human rights issues arerepresented by the demonstrators'signs in Figure 10-16?

Figure 10-16 In many parts of the world,people protest to gain the same rightsAmericans fought for during the AmericanRevolution. These demonstrators protestedoutside the Vancouver Trade and ConventionCentre, where leaders of the eighteen Asia-Pacific economies (APEC) met in 1997. Thedemonstration singled out human rightsviolations in a number of APEC countries.

4. a) Why do you think the American Declaration ofIndependence failed to end the fightingbetween Britain and the colonies?

b) Imagine you are George III and you receive an"advance copy" of the American Declarationof Independence. Write a paragraph detailingyour reaction to this document.

1. List the major causes of the American Revolution.

2. Develop a five- to ten-point plan for the Britishgovernment in its dealings with its North Americancolonies. Keep in mind that you want to solve thegovernment's money problems yet keep theAmericans happy.

3. Create two or three new slogans that capture themeaning of "No taxation without representation."Mount your slogans on signs and hold a mockdemonstration against the Stamp Act.

308 CHAPTER 10r

• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION ANDBRITISH NORTH AMERICA

Because we live in Canada andnot the United States, it ishard for us to understand whythe Americans would invade

Canada during the revolution,especially since the Canadiens did notthreaten America. However, Canadawas a British Colony and, as a Britishbase, it was a threat to the Americancause. For that reason, revolutionarieslaunched an attack on Quebec as oneof their first moves. They hoped thatthe population would join with theother colonists.

This did not occur for severalreasons. First, it was difficult for twocultures which had been at war in thepast to trust each other completely.Second, it was unlikely that English-speaking Protestant Americans wouldagree to protect French language andculture the way the Quebec Act did.When the Americans seized Quebec,

they made people angry by takingthings and paying for them inworthless American money.Moreover, as you just learned, theycould never take the fortress ofQuebec, Canada's main defence.

THE LOYALISTSNot all Americans supported therevolution. Approximately one personin five was strongly in favour ofBritish rule. Many were newimmigrants to the colonies fromcountries other than England. TheseLoyalists, sometimes called "Tories,"were persecuted by revolutionarypatriots. Patriots not only abused theLoyalists, they also burned theirhomes and farms.

Those Americans loyal tothe British government

often thought that politicswas being forced downtheir throats by suchradicals as the Sons ofLiberty. Many were muchhappier under British rulethan under the newUnited States continentalgovernment.

Read the fol/owingobservations from aBoston storekeeper. Doyou agree with his views?Which side would youhave chosen during therevolutionary war?

It always seemed strange to methat people who (fight) so much for... liberty should be so ready todeprive others of their naturalliberty; that men who are guardingagainst being subject to laws (to)which they never gave theirconsent in person or by theirrepresentative should at the sametime make laws, and ... executethem upon me and others, to whichlaws I am sure I never gave myconsent either in person or by myrepresentative.

Patriot: a supporter of theAmerican Revolution

Sons of Liberty: bullieswho intimidated thosewho supported the king

Figure 10-17 Loyalists wereoften attacked by rebels.Most victims were at the veryleast humiliated. Many werebeaten, tarred and feathered,or sometimes killed-a highprice to pay for holding apolitical opinion. Thisengraving shows a Loyaliststrung up from a "Libertypole" and being mocked by amob. Why do you think thegovernment failed to stopthis kind of harassment?

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND BRITISH NORTH AMERICA 309

Figure 10-19 Loyalists andother settlers were forced toclear land and build housesand barns before their farmscould be profitable. Theirthree basic products, wheat,lumber, and potash, helpedprovide money for survivaland improvements. Opposite,a thresher stands outside arecreated pioneer farm housein Ontario.

potash:wood ashes usedas a fertilizer in farming

thresher: a machine usedfor processing wheat

310 CHAPTER 10

~ ~.~

GULF OF C'ST. LAWRENCE

ATLANTICOCEAN

o 100 200 km,===:±~==::;JI

( Loyalist Settlement, 1800-1830

Figure 10-18 Because many of them were farmers, Loyalists settled in areas with good, arable land.The British government also provided them with supplies, including farming tools. Because there werefew roads, most Loyalists took up acreage on the shores of rivers and lakes.

ARRIVAL INCANADASome Loyalists fought against thePatriots. In the south, there was abloody civil war between Patriots andLoyalists. When the revolution ended,many Loyalists felt forced to leavetheir homes to go to British colonieselsewhere. Many came to Canada-about 43 000 settled in what was tobecome Ontario. Almost 8000 wentto the Maritime colonies, whichresulted in the formation of a newcolony, New Brunswick, in 1784.

The arrival of so many English-speaking colonists in Canada madethe 60 000 or so Canadiens veryuncomfortable. The Loyaliststhemselves resented the French anddid not want to adjust to Frenchtraditions. In the west, theydemanded their own government, andQuebec was split into two colonies,Lower Canada, to the east, and UpperCanada, to the west.

JOSEPH BRANTANDTHEMOHAWKSWhen the American Revolutionbegan, the Native peoples had tochoose sides. There was little chancethat they could stay out of theconflict, especially since theAmericans wanted their lands. TheMohawk nation, in particular, hadstrong links to the British. They hadgood relations with Sir WilliamJohnson, who represented England,and judged that their best interestswere served by siding with theLoyalists. One Mohawk leader, JosephBrant, was the brother of Molly Brant,

Sir William's companion and friend,and had other close links with theJohnson family.

Brant was an exceptionaldiplomat. A skilled leader and famouswarrior, he had made several trips toEngland as an ambassador for the SixNations. As a personal friend ofimportant people in English society,he was also invited to dine with theking and queen, and socialized withthe Prince of Wales.

One reason for Brant's visit toEngland was to find lands on whichLoyalist Mohawks could settle. TheMohawks, Brant argued, had beenfriends and supporters of the Britishcause for many years, and shouldhave a place within the Empire. Brantwas angry with British treatment ofthe Iroquois. He believed that theBritish, along with the Americans,had obstructed what might have beena great alliance of Iroquois andwestern aboriginal peoples. Heprotested that the Iroquois grandcouncil:

" ... could Inotl believe0it possible such firm {( .~}friends and allies could \. .be so neglected by a .nation (Britain) remarkable for itshonour and glory, whom we haveserved with so much zeal andfidelity ... We desire to knowwhether we are to be consideredas His Majesty's faithful allies,and have that support ... such asold and true friends expect.

Mohawk nation: one ofthe Six Nations

ambassador: an officialdelegate of one nationto the government ofanother nation

Six Nations: the Iroquoisconfederacy of sixnations

DID YOU KNOW?

In time, the British governmentgave the Mohawks land along theGrand River in southern Ontario,near the present city of Brantford.Mohawk allies would help the Britishagain in the war of 1812 against theAmericans.

At the HurontownConference of IndianNations in 1786, delegatesdrafted a message to theAmerican government. Itreminded the Americansthat the Native peoples hadnot participated in thepeace treaty between Britainand the United States, andthat they had acted asindependent nations duringthe revolution.

The HurontownConference was one ofmany attempts to defendNative land and traditionsfrom the powerfulgovernments of the UnitedStates, Britain, andeventually, Canada. Historybooks have tended tooverlook this continuingstruggle.

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND BRITISH NORTH AMERICA 311

One of Joseph Brant's many visits to Englandwas described in a London newspaper. This

account gives us some sense of the high regard inwhich Brant was held there.

Monday last, Colonel JosephBrant, the celebrated King ofthe Mohawks, arrived in thiscity from America, and afterdining with Colonel De Peister, at theheadquarters here, proceeded immediatelyon his journey to London. Thisextraordinary personage is said to havepresided at the late Congress ofconfederate chiefs of the Indian nations inAmerica, and to be by them appointed tothe conduct and chief command in the warwhich they now (plan) against the UnitedStates of America. He took his departurefor England immediately as that assemblybroke up; and it is (thought) that hisembassy to the British court is of greatimportance.

Figure 10-20 The famous Mohawk leader and diplomatis shown in European clothes, but he kept his Mohawkscalplock. Brant believed that it was necessary for theNative peoples to adopt European customs while keepingtheir own traditions. Why do you think Brant and othersof the Six Nations distrusted the Americans? scalplock: a small lock of hair

ACTIVITI ES

1. Were the Sons of Liberty justified in theirtreatment of the Loyalists?

2. Were the Loyalists refugees? Why or why not? Inwhat way did their experience as farmers make lifeeasier for them in Canada?

312 CHAPTER 10

3. Find out Joseph Brant's Mohawk name. How didhe get the name "Joseph Brant"? Why do youthink Joseph Brant was able to establish diplomaticlinks with the British to the extent that he did?

4. Give reasons why Brant and the Mohawks, theIroquois, and others, would choose to allythemselves with the British in the revolutionarywar.

• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

lthough a war in 1812AWOUldeventually ensurethat British North Americawould not be part of the

United States, few people werecertain of this outcome at the end ofthe eighteenth century. The boundaryestablished by the 1763 Treaty ofParis was simply a line on a map,involving areas that British andAmerican officials scarcely knew.The border between Maine and NewBrunswick, for example, was veryconfused and would not be set,finally, until the middle of thecentury. Westward, the border ransouth of the St. Lawrence, throughthe middle of the Great lakes, and onthrough the Lake of the Woods.Beyond lay the vast territories ofRupert's Land, controlled by theHudson's Bay Company, and the fur-trading routes of its rival, the NorthWest Company. These routesfollowed rivers into the northwest toNew Caledonia and central BritishColumbia, and on to the PacificOcean.

The British colonies-Newfoundland, New Brunswick,Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island,and Upper and Lower Canada-hadtiny populations compared to therapidly growing United States, andtheir residents were much moreconservative. The maritime coloniesalso differed from those to the west.In no way, did people on the Atlanticcoast think of themselves asCanadians. Their economies werecompletely linked with those ofEngland and New England. Thoughthey were relatively content withtheir colonial governments, this wasnot the case in Upper and LowerCanada, where discontent wasbrewing.

THECONSTITUTIONALACTWhen the United Empire Loyalistsdemanded that they be governedseparately from the French-speakingCanadiens, British Governor Carletonagreed. The Constitutional Act,passed in 1791, divided Quebec intotwo new colonies. Lower Canada, theheartland of old New France, keptFrench culture, the Catholic religion,and French civil law. Upper Canada,the new colony with its easternboundary at the Ottawa River, wasEnglish-speaking and Protestant, withBritish laws and institutions. Clergyreserves, one seventh of all the landin Upper Canada, were set aside tosupport the Anglican Church. LowerCanada would later become theprovince of Quebec; Upper Canada,the province of Ontario.

The Constitutional Act gave bothcolonies their own governments, eachconsisting of an elected assembly, agovernor, and two councils. Themembers of the Executive andLegislative Councils were appointed.They were always prominentmembers of the community, and theyhelped the governor make laws forthe colony. Elected assemblymembers could also propose laws, butthese could be vetoed by the governorand the councils.

The British government had nointention of giving the Canadiancolonies the type of democracy that,from their standpoint, had caused somany problems in America. Power, inboth Upper and Lower Canada, washeld by small groups of English-speaking business people and bylandowners who passed laws that

Anglican Church: Churchof England in Canada

to veto: to stop

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND BRITISH NORTH AMERICA 313

the Moodies, in this chapter'sWindow on the Past, could afford totake cabins on the upper deck. Otherswere not so lucky. They becamehuman cargo, kept below deck insteerage.

Steerage was awful. Passengersslept in bunks surrounded by thebunks of other families. They cookedand socialized in a common areabelow deck, often eating food theyhad brought with them. The ceilingswere low and supported by heavybeams. Tall people had to stoop andduck just to get around withoutbumping their heads. Ventilation was

poor, and the air was foul.People used buckets fortoilets, and there were nofacilities for washing.Many became ill, somefrom deadly cholera.After more than twomonths at sea, conditionsin steerage becamealmost unbearable. Nowonder Susanna Moodiesaw Irish passengers fromsteerage franticallywashing themselves andtheir clothing as soon asthey landed.

For many emigrants,even a place in steeragewas too expensive. Somepeople would never havethe opportunity to earnthe money needed to goto Canada. To earnpassage, many peopleindentured themselves towealthy families. Anindenture was a contractbetween two peoplewherein one agreed towork for the other inexchange for a passage toNorth America. It wasactually a form ofvoluntary slavery.Indentures were not anew idea. They had been

cargo: goods brought byship

steerage: the section of apassenger ship with theworst accommodation

cholera: an infectiousdisease marked byterrible stomach cramps

passage: money for thevoyage

benefited their own class. This groupgenerally ignored the interests ofsettlers, habitants, and othermembers of the so-called lowerclasses. This attitude would causewidespread rebellion in the 1830s.

• • • • •GElTlNG TOCANADA

Figure 10-21 Life insteerage was dismal, not tomention unsanitary.

Most people who came to Canadadeparted by boat from Liverpool,Southampton, and the other westernports of England. Richer people, like

314 CHAPTER 10

used in the colonies for centuries andcontinued to exist until well into thenineteenth century. Imagine arrivingin Canada after a long voyage-onlyto work as an unpaid servant for fiveto seven years. Still, indenturedservants usually stayed in Canadawhen their service was over.

THE PIONEERS OFUPPER CANADABy 1815, the population of UpperCanada would grow from around10 000 people to about 95 000.Although immigrants came from theBritish Isles, many of the newcomers

were from the United States. Theywere drawn by cheap land andopportunities in what is nowsouthern Ontario. These so-called"New Loyalists" liked the Americansystem of government much morethan the British system in UpperCanada. During the War of 1812(which you will read about in thenext section), British officials wereafraid that they might side withAmerican invaders, though this didnot generally happen.

Even more people came to UpperCanada after 1815. In fact, thepopulation of Upper Canada was fourtimes as large in 1850 as it was in1815. The British governmentstrongly encouraged settlers-part of

At the time of the AmericanRevolution, there were

approximately 500 000 African-Americans in the ThirteenColonies, and some living inother parts of British NorthAmerica. Most were slaves,working on the plantations ofthe south. Many of the signersof the Declaration ofIndependence-ThomasJefferson, for example-wereslave owners.

The persistence of slaveryin America created a strategicopportunity for the British. Byoffering freedom to slaves, asSir Henry Clinton did, theycould add soldiers to their ownforces and ruin the plantationeconomies of many Americanstates, thereby weakening therebels. The slaves of Loyalistswere not offered theirfreedom, of course.

It is estimated that up to100 000 slaves crossed theBritish lines and becameLoyalists. Some were more freethan others. Captured slaveswere kept in slavery and sold.Loyalist slave owners kept asmany slaves as they could andbrought them to Canada-much to the disgust ofabolitionists (those who wantedto outlaw slavery) in Britain.

After the war,approximately 3000 BlackLoyalists went to Nova Scotia,where many of theirdescendants still live.

To every Negro who shall '0'desert the Rebel Standard, :: ::full security to follow, within > :../these Lines, any occupationwhich he shall think proper.

-British Commander-in-Chief, Sir HenryClinton, I 779

Figure 10-22 Some BlackLoyalists, including BishopSamuel Crowther, tried tore-establish a home land inthe African territory of SierraLeone.

THEAMERICAN REVOLUTIONAND BRITISHNORTHAMERICA 315

to annex: to take foroneself

Highland Clearances:Scottish landlords forcedtheir tenants to leavetheir farms so they coulduse the land to raisesheep

barn raising: the buildingof a barn by thecommunity

316 CHAPTER 10

its plan to make British NorthAmerica stronger. The governmenthoped that this would make theUnited States less likely to try toannex Upper Canada.

The British government washappy to allow its own people tocome to British North America.British cities were overcrowded, andmany Scots had lost their rentedfarms during the Highland Clearancesand had nowhere to go. Someindividuals and companies receivedhuge land grants in Upper Canada andwere told that they must find settlers.One landowner, Colonel ThomasTalbot, received land that stretchedfrom Lake Erie to Lake Huron. Talbotruled his lands like a noble, andnamed the town of St. Thomas inhonour of himself.

As in the United States, there wasmuch land speculation. Sometimesthe best land was kept off the marketin order to lower the supply. As youknow, a low supply of somethingmakes it more expensive to buy. Newsettlers became angry when theyexpected to find cheap, rich farm landand ended up with rocky or swampylands because speculators had takenthe best land for themselves.

PIONEER SOCIETYMost of the people who settled inUpper Canada were farmers. Theywere interested in things that wereimportant to their way of living: theirland, their crops, and the weather.Pioneers worked hard to clear land ofthe great trees-the maples, oaks,walnuts, and hickories. It usuallytook years to clear a hectare ofstumps and rocks. There were alsosome small industries that you wouldexpect to find in a rural society-lumber mills, potash processors, boat-yards, and breweries. Settlers mademoney by selling timber to mills, and

potash, an excellent fertilizer.Early settlers worked hard just to

survive, but they believed that theirchildren should be educated. The firstschools were set up by the AnglicanChurch. These were mainly for thechildren of merchants and the upperclasses. They were supported withmoney the church earned by sellingor renting clergy reserves. But manypioneers were not Anglican. Theywere Methodists or Presbyterians, andhad to pay for their own schools andteachers. Catholics had an evenharder time, since the CatholicChurch was not approved by theBritish government. Catholics couldnot hold any government office, oreven vote, except in Quebec.

Pioneers had to cooperate witheach other to get work done. Themonumental task of tearing thesquared trunks of great hardwoodtrees from the ground could not beendone by one or two persons. Even thesimplest tasks were often better doneby groups of people. Barns, forexample, were built by many peopleworking together at barn raisings, atradition that is still kept alive byMennonite and Amish farmers insouthern Ontario.

In pioneer days, a large barn couldbe built in a single day, often withoutusing nails. Men worked on theconstruction, women cooked themeals, and children ran supplies andwater to the workers. At other times,women held quilting and spinningbees. Bees provided wonderfulopportunities to socialize. Pioneersoften used the occasion of raising abarn-or other heavy work-to have abig party and dance. They wouldoften celebrate right through thenight, a welcome break from life andhard labour on small, isolated farmsin the bush. Of course, because peoplehad to provide their ownentertainment in those days, therewas always someone who could playthe fiddle or otherwise make music.

The end of a hard life often came quickly inUpper Canada. Pioneers who regularly

worked until exhausted had no real medicalcare if they became ill.

John Howison, a traveller through thecolony in 1821, happened upon a one-roomedcabin in which a man lay dying. Mr. Howisondescribed the scene in the letter that follows.

Figure 10-23 This cabin, a part of the Grey CountyMuseum in Owen Sound, Ontario, is typical of thepioneer period in Upper Canada. Usually, cabinshad one main room and a loft, and had a kitchengarden on the sunny side. This garden was tendedby the women and children of the household, andsupplied the vegetables and herbs. Women alsopreserved food and made the candles and soap.

hand, while some 0weeping boys and {{ ":':relatives occupied the ..:other. The struggles of .the dying person werenow more feeble-hisinspirations could scarcely beheard, and his cheeks assumedthat waxy dimness whichalways precedes dissolution.The sister-in-law had severaltimes started open, with aglassy stare ...

However, the spirit soonfled; and the moment this tookplace, most of the party rushedfrom the house, sobbing andcrying most bitterly ... butthree men remained in thehouse, and began to layoutthe corpse ... When the bodywas properly laid out, thewomen came in, and put abible under its head and aplate of salt upon its breast.These ceremonies beingfinished, I mounted my horseand hastily pursued mysolitary journey, which theimpressions left by the scene Ihad just witnessed rendereddoubly unpleasant andgloomy.

It was now twlllght, and as thepath had become ratherindistinct, I rode towards ahouse, that I might makeinquiries regarding my route.Several people stood at thedoor; but as they took no noticeof me, I entered the hovel. Itcontained only one room, andin the midst of this was abedstead, on which an old manlay, apparently in the laststruggles of death. On one sideof him stood a boy holding aflaming torch of hickory bark,and on the other was seated ayoung man, who employedhimself in driving away thelarge blue flies that hummedaround the face of the dyingperson, and sometimesattempted to enter his mouth.

I was a good deal startledby the scene, and immediatelyretired to the door. The groupthere consisted of the wife ofthe old man, a sister-in-law,several relations, and a quackdoctor. They were so deeplyengaged in a discussion aboutthe nature of the patient'sdisease, and the time at whichhe was struck with death, thatthey seemed entirely to forget

that he was still alive.The sister-in-law, a sickly,

thin, middle-aged woman,insisted that his complaint hadarisen from debilitation, andgave a long account of her firsthusband's sickness, when shelived in Schenectady [NewYork]; the others seemed to paygreat respect to her authority... except the wife of the dyingperson, who was dressing somemeat upon a fire they hadkindled out of doors. She held afrying pan in one hand, and aragged handkerchief in theother, sobbing, and employingherself in cooking, alternately.In a short time, the young manin the house called out, " Comenow-he is going"; then thewhole party rushed in andranged themselves around thedeath-bed.

The hickory torch threw adull glare upon this singulargroup, and exhibited, more orless distinctly, the heartlessand scrutinizing [faces] ofthose who composed it. Thedoctor stood at the head of thebed, and near him was thesister-in-law. On one side satthe wife, with a spoon in her

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND BRITISH NORTH AMERICA 317

Figure 10-24 GovernorSimcoe built the capital ofUpper Canada at York, laterto be called "Toronto." A tinysettlement, York occupied acleared strip of land betweenLake Ontario and the forest.What sights might you haveexpected to see in York, hadyou arrived in the earlynineteenth century?

• To ensure that the colony wouldfollow a British model, John GravesSimcoe was appointed the firstgovernor of Upper Canada. Anaristocrat himself, Simcoe believed inthe importance of the upper class. Itcould provide leaders for thegovernment, the army, and theChurch. Neither Simcoe, nor anyonein the colonial office in London had,any notion that the people had theability to govern themselves.

Because Simcoe thought thatBritish North America neededprotection from the United States-even from the French in Louisiana-he made defence a priority. He builtseveral roads so that troops couldmove easily from west to east, andfrom north to south. Three of themain roads are Danforth, Dundas, andYonge-major streets in Torontotoday. These roads were used bypioneers and land developers andlinked the scattered settlements ofthe colony. On Simcoe's orders,thousands of hectares of land were

318 CHAPTER 10

JOHN GRAVESSIMCOE AND THEBRITISH BONDToday it seems odd that Britain usedpolicies to make Canadian society akind of copy of British society. Afterall, many people had left Europe forNorth America to escape the homecountry. Nevertheless, Britishinfluence was everywhere. TheAnglican Church had specialprivileges and control over education ,just like it had in England. British lawwas the law of the land, and wasgenerally fair and well-organized.Most of all, the government tried tobuild a Canadian aristocracy to leadthe colony. The very idea of a societywithout a high class ruling the lowerclasses was frightening to the Britisharistocracy. It was horrible toconsider, much like therepublicanism of the United Stateswhich they hated so much. '

surveyed and parcelled out, with one-seventh reserved for the AnglicanChurch (the clergy), and one seventhfor the British government (thecrown).

Simcoe supported the Nativepeoples in their fights withAmericans, not so much because hebelieved in their cause, but becausehe thought that strong Native alliescould help protect Upper Canada. TheNative peoples viewed the British inthe same way.

Simcoe certainly helped putUpper Canada on a firm footing. Thepopulation grew, and slavery becameless and less acceptable. The firstteachers arrived and helped to start aneducational system. Roads were builtfor transportation and protection. Amilitia was set up for defence. UntilSimcoe, few people had ever thoughtof the challenges of building a newcountry. By the time he left Canada,in 1796, the population of UpperCanada had grown by manythousands.

ACTIVITI ES

1. Create a web diagram to illustrate the effects ofthe Constitutional Act of 1791 on the boundaries,government, religion, and languages of theprovince of Quebec. Begin as follows, and addmore spokes to represent further subdivisions:

'" /Quebec

Constitutional Act1791

Figure 10-25 Today,Danforth Avenue is one ofToronto's busiest streets anda major tourist attractionbecause of its thrivingEuropean culture.

2. Write a letter to your relative back home inLiverpool, England, describing your ocean-crossingin steerage. Try to communicate all the hardshipsinvolved.

3. Make five observations about life in thebackwoods of Upper Canada. What jobs didpioneers do for themselves that we would neverthink of doing for ourselves today?

4. Who was John Graves Simcoe? Create a PMI chartthat describes his attitudes, ablilities, andachievements.

THEAMERICAN REVOLUTIONAND BRITISHNORTHAMERICA 319

Figure 10-26 This mapillustrates the major eventsof the War of 1812. Wheredid most of the action takeplace?

320 CHAPTER 10

protected by only 5000 soldiers,seemed a tempting target.

The British had cause to worry.One American political party wantedwar. These so-called "War Hawks,"led by James Madison, enjoyedsupport from the Americangovernment and from people in theWest. They considered British supportof Native peoples hostile acts. In fact,the British were not as involved withthe Native peoples as the Americansthought. Instead, a Nativeconfederation, led by the greatShawnee warrior, Tecumseh, and hisbrother, the Prophet, was defendingits own territories from the land-hungry Americans.

However, the people of NewEngland were totally against war.They wanted to renew their profitabletrade with Britain and with theBritish Empire. When War was finallydeclared in 1812, the New Englandersstayed, more or less, neutral.

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

N

*

THE WAR OF 1812

At the close of theeighteenth century,relations between Britainand its former colonies

were very strained. The Americanswere annoyed by many things,among them the loss of tradingprivileges within the British Empire.Britain was at war with France andits revolutionary government in1793, and it often stopped or seizedAmerican ships. The British alsothought that the United States was athreat to the British fur trade.

The British worried about thefuture of their North Americancolonies. They certainly did not seemvery strong. The capital of UpperCanada, York, had only 1500 or soinhabitants by 1812. The entirepopulation of British North Americawas under 500 000. At the same time,the population of the United Stateswas more than 8 million. To manyAmericans, British North America,

o 50 100 km! I

f) September 1813 - Americans destroy British ships onlake Erie.October 1813 - Battle of Thames River. Americanvictory. Chief Tecumseh killed.October 1813 - American force of 4000 troops retreatfrom British and Canadian force of 1000.

(1!) December 1813 - Americans set fire to the town of Newark.

July 1814 - Battle of lundy's lane. Americans retreatto Fort Erie.

June 1812 - U.S.declares war on Britain.July 1812 - American army enters Upper Canada.o July 1812 - British capture Fort Michilimackinac.e August 1812 - General Brock and Chief Tecumsehcapture Detroit from American General Hull.October 1812 - Battle of Queenston Heights.Brock killed. Heights taken from Americans.

o April 1813 - Americans capture York.

promising. Rather than striking firstat the British fortresses at Halifax,Quebec, Montreal, and Kingston,where the British were strongest, theAmerican forces attacked Detroit andNiagara.

The American invasion force firsttried to draw Upper Canada settlers toits cause. In fact, American GeneralHull issued a haughty proclamationto the population. However, a forceled by British General Brock andTecumseh attacked the Americans at

THE COURSE OFTHE WARHad the Americans been completelyunited against British North America,they might have conquered thecolonies. But because New Englandwanted no part of the war, manysoldiers of the American militia soonlost their enthusiasm. "Mr. Madison'swar," as many called it, did not look

Figure 10-27 By building astrong militia, and byrespecting the wishes of theNative peoples, GeneralBrock created a gooddefence for Upper Canada.Here he is shown shakinghands with Tecumseh, hisally. What strengths wouldBrock's successor require tobe successful?

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND BRITISH NORTH AMERICA 321

Tecumseh is highly regarded both in Canadaand the United States. His own people idolized

him as a great and generous hunter and warrior.Americans considered him the chief of theirenemies, and made him into an almostmythological figure.

Tecumseh was a wonderful orator andperformer and he had a quality called U charisma. U

He had a way of achieving the maximum effectwith words. People who heard him speak were inawe of the power and beauty of his speakingvoice, and of the way he presented a message.

Some of Tecumseh's speeches wererecorded. The excerpt that follows is part of aspeech given to the Choctaw Council of 1811,during a long journey in which he spoke at thecouncils of many of the tribes.

But have we not got the courage todefend our country and maintain ourancient independence ... What need isthere to speak of the past? It speaks foritself and asks, "Where is the Pequod? Where theNarragansetts, ... Pocanokets, and many otheronce powerful tribes of our race? They havevanished before the (greed) and oppression of thewhite men, as snow before a summer sun ... Youpeople too will be falling and scattering cloudsbefore their blighting breath. You too will bedriven away from your native land and ancientdomains as leaves driven before the wintrystorms .. "

322 CHAPTER 10

Detroit and forced Hull to surrender.This early victory convinced manysettlers, who might have favoured theUnited States, to remain loyal toBritain. In fact, Tecumseh and Brockhad built a firm alliance based onmutual respect. In the battle forQueenston Heights, near NiagaraFalls, Brock was killed while chargingAmericans on the Heights. Tecumsehhad a much lower opinion of some ofBrock's successors.

In the first year of the war, UpperCanada was saved from theAmericans because of good leadershipand planning. The next years,however, were difficult. US forcescaptured the capital at York, butretreated. The British were defeated

Figure 10-28 John Norton was a war chief ofthe Mohawks, and the adopted son of JosephBrant. At Queenston Heights, his warriorsterrified the American defenders, and forcedthem to flee. Norton also fought at Fort Georgeand in other battles. Why do you thinkCanadian history of the past glorified GeneralBrock but neglected Chief Norton and otherNative leaders?

on the Great Lakes by Americanships, but the Americans lost thebattle of Stoney Creek to the British,and were defeated by the Iroquois atBeaver Dams. (Laura Secord, a womanfrom Queenston, provided helpfulinformation to the British.)Tecumseh, who had saved UpperCanada, was tragically killed atMoraviantown while fighting a rear-guard action.

During the largest battle in UpperCanada, the British won at Lundy'sLane. In Lower Canada, the UnitedStates army was beaten at Chrysler'sfarm and at Chateauguay. Britishtroops also attacked and burnedWashington. With the defeat ofNapoleon at Waterloo, the British wereable to send their toughest veterans to

the war, which many hoped wouldquickly end. In fact, the final battlewas fought at New Orleans, in 1815,after the war had ended.

The War of 1812 was the finalmajor invasion of Canadian territoryby an enemy. It changed noboundaries, and had little effectbeyond confirming the existence ofCanada. The people of Upper Canadabecame more loyal to the Britishcrown than they had been, and evenless like Americans. In later times, thevaliant efforts of the Native peoples,who saved the country, would bealmost forgotten. Although Tecumsehnever saw himself as British orCanadian-he was a Shawnee chief,after all-he was a genuine hero whohelped saved Canada.

rear-guard: soldiers placedto protect the rear of thefighting force

ACTIVITI ES

1. Describe the achievements and character ofTecumseh.

2. Write two paragraphs, one in favour of theAmericans in the War of 1812, and one opposed.

3. In point form, summarize the major events in theWar of 1812.

• 4. Look carefully at the portrait of John Norton(Figure 10-28). What human qualities has theartist emphasized? List three qualities that youdetect and the visual evidence for each.

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND BRITISH NORTH AMERICA 323

with other pioneers. For the Native peoples, whowere forced to fight against settlement of theirhunting and farming territories, there was littlegood news. Usually allied with the British againstthe Americans, they despaired as the boundaries oftheir lands were pushed back farther and farther,and their numbers shrank.

For the most part, early settlers worried littleabout politics. They lived hard lives and spent mostof their time just making a go of their farms. Somecared little about patriotism. Many would havebeen just as happy to be Americans as not. The Warof 1812 changed that. The British defended Canadafrom the Americans. Afterwards, people kept theirliking for American ways to themselves. Canadabecame British, quite different in its traditions andways from the United States. These patterns wereset in motion in the early pioneer years of BritishCanada.

CONCLUSION

After the fall of Quebec, few people hadany idea that a new nation would be builtfrom the British colonies and territoriesin North America. The wilderness of

Canada could produce little more than fur. TheAmerican Revolution changed the fate of Canada.Serious efforts to build new English-speakingcolonies, populated by loyal subjects of the Britishcrown, began in earnest as the revolution ended.United Empire Loyalists, including people of theSix Nations and African-Americans fleeing slavery,were in the first wave. They were followed by newLoyalists-Americans, Germans, and others whowanted to farm the fertile lands of southernOntario.

In Upper Canada, the new western colony,Canada's systems of government, governmentservices, and education system were largely born.These institutions would later be taken westward

SUMMARY ACTIVITIES

1. In this chapter's Window on the Past, you read aboutSusanna Moodie's arrival in Canada and her reaction tothe Irish emigrants who were cleaning themselves andtheir clothes after being cooped up with sick, dying,and starving people below deck in steerage. Write aconversation between two Irish people who watch asSusanna walks by.

2. Design a recruiting poster for either the new AmericanContinental Army, or one of the British Loyalistregiments, such as Butler's Rangers, the Queen's OwnRangers, or the Loyal New York Regiment.

3. Write a legend based on events in the Americanrevolutionary war.

4. Draw a map of an imaginary village near Yonge orDundas Streets in pioneer Upper Canada. The villagewould be connected by road to other communities,especially to the capital at York. It would most likely havea blacksmith's shop and livery stable, a general store, achurch, and perhaps an inn and a brewery. You mayinclude any other buildings that you think areappropriate. Give your village a name, and estimate itspopulation. Make two pie charts that show the make-upof the population: the first by nation of origin, thesecond by religion.

5. Construct a dialogue between Tecumseh, JamesMadison, and General Brock, in which each outlines hisgoals.

1. Create a class quilt with squares of material. Eachstudent could make and decorate one square and theclass could stitch it together. Use materials that meansomething to you, e.g., denim. You could hold regularquilting bees throughout the year.

324

2. With a partner, or in a small group, research an eventor person from the War of 1812 period, and do anillustrated presentation for the class.