Running Head: THE CONSTRUCTS OF CULTURAL COMPETENCE IN CONDUCTING BUSINESS ABROAD

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Cultural Competence: Experience VS. Education

The Constructs of Cultural Competence in

Conducting Business Abroad: Experience vs. Education

Kelly Gooch

James Madison University

Table of Contents

Chapter One: Introduction3Purpose of this Study5Justification of this Study6Research Questions6Hypotheses6Research Gap7Significance of Research7Definition of Terms8Brief Overview of the Study9Chapter Two: Literature Review10Cultural Competence Models10Cultural Training Theoretical Framework and Social Learning Theory14Cultural Experience and Self-Complexity Theory14Study Abroad Programs: History, Development and Findings15The SLEPT Framework18Conceptual Framework20Chapter Three: Methodology21Research Design21Description of Population and Sample21Data Collection Instruments22Data Analysis24Internal and External Validity, Reliability, Generalizability, and Limitations24Description and Justification of Statistical Techniques25References26

Chapter OneIntroduction

It is no secret that globalization in the workplace is expanding full force. As the world continues to get “smaller”, individuals are spending more time in countries other than their own, interacting with people of various cultures (Zakaria, 2000). Anyone who has traveled abroad knows that it takes some adjusting simply to exist in a foreign country. According to Zakaria (2000), “international interaction creates problems, since people are separated by barriers such as time, language, geography, food, and climate. In addition, peoples' values, beliefs, perceptions, and background can also be quite different” (p. 492). To conduct business in a foreign country however, is a whole separate challenge. As noted by Adler and Bartholomew (1992):

Decisions are now made by people from a wider range of cultures than previously, many of whom are local managers from foreign subsidiaries posted on temporary "inpatriate" assignments at corporate headquarters. These "inpatriates" are not encouraged to express the diversity of national perspectives and cultural experience they represent. Rather, they are asked to adapt as the firm implicitly and explicitly integrates them into the organizational culture that is still dominated by the values of the headquarters' national culture. (p. 55)

According to Douglas and Jones-Rikkers (2001), future business managers must be prepared to interact with people and cultural situations that differ significantly from their North American life experiences. The interactions involved highlight the absolute necessity of some form of transnational competence (Koehn & Rosneau, 2002).

But where do employees acquire this “transnational competence”? Ultimately it comes down to two elements. The first is the individual’s experience and exposure to other cultures (Zoogah & Abbey, 2010). This may include family upbringing, prolonged stays abroad, or close relations with persons of another nationality. According to Zoogah and Abbey (2010), “employees with cross-cultural experience are likely to assist organizations, particularly those in emerging economies, to integrate into the global market, learn new technologies, and provide legitimacy” (p. 322). These experiences can be innate, such as growing up in a multicultural household, or intentional, such as traveling to another country for an extended time period.

The second element is cultural education or training, which is essentially a form of instruction purposefully administered to an individual with an expected outcome of cultural understanding. This can be provided in the form of classroom or online training, observation or research. According to Tung, “cross-cultural training may be defined as any procedure used to increase an individual's ability to cope with and work in a foreign environment” (as cited in Zakaria, 2000, p. 496). In contrast to the experience/exposure element, cultural training and education is solely purposeful, with a direct intent to attain knowledge and understanding of another culture.

It is possible that a combination of the two elements may be most effective in producing cultural competence. A popular example of this is short-term Study Abroad Programs (SAPs). In research conducted on International Hospitality Management students, Kriegl found that “first-hand international experience was considered the most effective method of cross-cultural training, and study abroad programs were mentioned as an alternative for gaining first-hand international experience” (as cited by Douglas & Jones-Rikkers, 2001, p. 57). Another study conducted by St.Clair and McKenry (1999) on nursing students who participated in a SAP found that cultural competency was achievable through “short-term international nursing clinical immersion experiences” (p. 233). They (St. Clair & McKenry) note:

Studying anthropology and cultural diversity in school may facilitate the development of cultural sensitivity and enlighten one about the concept of ethnocentrism, but without living in another culture, students have limited ability to understand and overcome their own ethnocentrism. (p. 233-234)

This research will examine SAPs in comparison with cross-cultural education and training as well as cross-cultural exposure to identify behaviors that will develop the most culturally competent individual based off of self-reporting results.

Purpose of this Study

The purpose of this study is to identify the best possible approach to achieving the highest level of cultural competence. Previous research has been conducted on the importance of world-mindedness (Farmer, 1993; Robinson, 2005; Sakuragi, 2006; Vassar, 2006; Merryfield, Lo, Po & Kasai, 2008; Yamaguchi, 2011) and cultural competence developed through cultural training and international exposure (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Farmer, 1993; Zakaria, 2000; Schuerholtz-Lehr, 2007; Zoogah & Abbey, 2010) however this inquiry aims to evaluate how these elements work collectively, and how they rank in significance.

Extensive research has also been conducted on Study Abroad Programs (Opper, 1990; Engle & Engle, 2003; Kitsantas, 2004; Williams, 2005; Black & Duhon, 2006:) and their influence on employee preparedness in the workplace (Bikson & Law, 1994; Adler, Loughrin-Sacco & Moffatt, 2005; Golay, 2006:). This study will center in on how prepared students who have participated in these programs are in comparison to those who have had experiences and trainings outside of short term SAPs. The results of Douglas and Jones-Rikkers’ (2001) study on SAPs and world-mindedness suggested that one method for increasing world-mindedness includes participation in Study Abroad Programs. This study will uncover how SAPs play a role in shaping culturally competent individuals.

Justification of this Study

This study is being conducted with the intent to assist companies in the hiring and training of international representatives. This research will be valuable on both a small and large scale. On a small scale, Harrisonburg employers will have the ability to determine if their hiring and training practices need to be altered. On a larger scale, if the most effective strategies of producing or hiring culturally competent employees are determined, organizations will be better able to conduct successful business worldwide, and from a business perspective will ultimately contribute to the growth of globalization.

Research Questions

The researcher seeks to address the following questions:

-How does the possession of cultural experiences and exposure compare to involvement in cultural training and education in terms of individual cultural competence?

-Do individuals who have experienced a combination of the two aforementioned elements in the form of short term Study Abroad Programs have a greater level of cultural competence than those who only satisfy one of the elements?

Hypotheses

-Individuals who possess experience with and exposure to another culture will be more culturally competent (in terms of that culture) than those who have been merely educated about that culture.

-Individuals who have had short term study abroad experience will be more culturally competent than those who only participate in culture competence trainings, however less culturally competent than those who have had more extensive experience and exposure to that culture.

Research Gap

Previous research has been conducted on multiple elements that make up this research. There have been extensive studies conducted on cultural training in its most effective form (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1986; Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Deshpande & Viswesvaran, 1992; Kealey & Protheroe, 1996), and how that translates to the workplace. Studies have also been led on employers’ desire to staff individuals who have had cross-cultural experience (Zoogah & Abbey, 2010). The gap lies where these factors come into contact with one another. However, they have not been compared and contrasted in terms of what leads to the best foreign ambassador.

Numerous studies are also directed at those hoping to improve employees’ cultural competencies in a U.S. based workplace (Douglas & Jones-Rikkers, 2001). These investigations relate more to diversity and the acceptance of those from other cultures who have begun work on American soil.

Significance of Research

The overarching rationale for this research is that globalization is on the rise. With the rapid evolution of technology, the boundaries between nations are constantly shrinking. Consequently, it is undeniably important to seek to improve the quality of our interactions with those of other nations. If employees lack the appropriate knowledge and skills, conducting business will be virtually impossible. This research is significant because it will asses how well students feel they are prepared to conduct business in a global world.

Definition of Terms

-Cultural competence: In a study conducted on defining cross-cultural competence in international business, researchers acknowledge cultural competence as “an individual’s effectiveness in drawing upon a repertoire of skills, knowledge, and attributes to work successfully with people from different national cultural backgrounds, at home or abroad (Johnson, Lenartowicz & Apud, 2006, p. 533). For the purpose of this study, we will examine only the abroad aspect of this definition. In this research, the term “cultural competence” will also be used interchangeably with the term “transnational competence”.

-World-mindedness: Defined by Farmer: “A worldview that encompasses a cognitive and affective understanding of the totality of humanity as primary reference group rather than the nationals of particular countries or regions of the world. This term is often used interchangeably with global literacy or global awareness. Although, some scholars distinguish between world-mindedness as the affective part of international education and education for a global perspective as the cognitive part of international education” (as cited by Schuerholtz-Lehr, 2007, p. 183).

-Cultural experience/exposure: “All direct and indirect experiences of encountering or interacting with the elements and/or members of foreign cultures” (Leung, Maddux, Galinsky, & Chiu, 2008, p. 169). In this research, cultural experience and exposure will include family upbringing, prolonged stays abroad (in excess of one year), and close relations with someone of another culture.

-Cultural training/education: According to Tung: “Cross-cultural training may be defined as any procedure used to increase an individual's ability to cope with and work in a foreign environment” (Zakaria, 2000, p. 496). For this research, cultural training will include classroom or online training, purposeful observation or research.

-Short Term Study Abroad Program: “Study abroad within one year and without receiving a degree from another country” (He & Chen, 2010, p. 349). This research will not consider long-term study abroad (in excess of a year) to fall into this category. Long-term study abroad will fall under the “prolonged stay” category of “cultural experience and exposure”.

Brief Overview of the Study

Through surveys distributed to undergraduate and graduate students in the College of Business (COB) at James Madison University (JMU), this research will aim to determine which of the elements produce the most culturally competent individuals. JMU’s COB is made up of 164 international students and conducts several SAPs each year. Through the survey distributed, students will provide data on their cultural experiences and education. They will then provide additional data regarding their levels of cultural competency in various categories. The results will be examined in contrast to cultural competency standards.

Chapter TwoLiterature Review

Cultural Competence Models

Johnson, Lenartowicz and Apud (2006) created a conceptual model (figure 2.2 below) to display the elements of this attribute as used in international business. The first part of the model displays components of cultural competence. These components include personal attributes, personal skills, and cultural knowledge. Each component is then broken down into more specific parts.

“Personal attributes” consists of values, beliefs and personality traits (Johnson et. al, 2006). These attributes are narrowed even further (but are not limited) to flexibility, perseverance and self-efficacy. “Personal skills” entails abilities and aptitudes. This is the behavioral part of cultural competence, and includes components such as language abilities and conflict management skills. “Cultural knowledge” comprises general and specific knowledge. General knowledge is an understanding of cultural differences, comparing and contrasting cultural differences, and how to work in different cultural environments. Specific cultural knowledge is more complex, and deals more with communication. There are three types of specific knowledge: factual, conceptual and attributional knowledge (Johnson et. al, 2006).

Johnson, Lenartowicz and Apuds’ model (2006) also considers the environments in which cross-cultural business occurs, and the barriers that may come as a part of them. These barriers can be physical, economic, political or legal. The researchers divided the external factors of cross-cultural interaction into two elements: institutional ethnocentrism and cultural distance. Institutional ethnocentrism “promotes the home culture’s way of doing things, and is one factor that differentiates cultural competence in international business from cultural competence in a domestic setting” (Johnson et. al, 2006, p. 533). Cultural distance “aims to capture the overall difference in national culture between the home country and affiliates overseas, and it has been used extensively in the study of the effects of national cultures on processes and outputs of multinational corporations” (Johnson et. al, 2006, p. 533). In this model, these factors work against the development of cultural competence.

As a whole, this model (Johnson et. al, 2006) provides a description of the tools needed to counter barriers and arrive at cross-cultural competence. According to Johnson et. al (2006), “Some individuals may have a limited set of tools at their disposal, or may not know how to use them appropriately. Through training, and through exposure to other cultures, other individuals learn to select and apply the appropriate tools, adapting them when necessary in the face of environmental barriers” (p. 534). Figure 2.2 provides a visual diagram of this model.

Figure 2.2 Cross-Cultural Competence (Johnson, Lenartowicz & Apud, 2006)

A

A conceptual framework developed by Kohen and Rosenall (2002) describes four sets of skills that must be aquired to attain cultural competence. The skills included in this model are explained by Morrison (2000, p. 127), who states that they are all “clearly differentiated, internally homogenous, and collectively exhaustive”. They include: analytic skills, emotional skills, creative/imaginative skills, and behavioral skills (as cited by Kohen & Rosenall, 2002).

Transnational analytic skills, according to Kohen and Rosenall (2002), “require the ability to convert culture-specific and culture-general information into understanding” (p. 109). Without this ability, it is likely messages will be misinterpreted. This skill, according to Osland (2000), also includes an understanding of central beliefs, values, practices and paradoxes of interface cultures and societies, as well as decoding of interpersonal activity. Political, ethnic, class and gender interests are also factors to be conscious of. The ability to understand implicit rules and link or compare them to one’s own customs is important, as well as possessing clarity about one’s own values and goals. According to Connolly and Bruner (1974), an individual with transnational analytical skills can use lessons from the past to select new approaches.

Transnational emotional skills are centered around four principal skills: motivation, flexibility, coping and self-confidence (Kohen & Rosenall, 2002). Motivation skills include the ability to be open, to face obstacles, and to learn from those obstacles. In this context, to possess motivation skills means to not be afraid of cultural differences. Flexibility invloves working with mulitple identities and understanding one’s own multicultural identity. This allows for the most effective social interaction. Coping with new environments is an important emotional skill in that it requires the indvidual to deal with interdependent challenges of multiple identities. Self-confidence encompasses all of the skills, and involves an understanding of one’s own ability to succeed in certain contexts. The individual must know that they can make a difference in any cultural context, whether it be their own or their counterpart’s (Kohen & Rosenall, 2002).

Transnational creative/imaginative skills, like emotional skills, consist of four sub-skills. The first involves the ability to see collaborative potential amongst individuals from different cultures. A second sub-skill is the ability to motivate their counterparts’ creative sides. The ability to be open to the ideas of others and adapting to those ideas is a third sub-skill which is important for creativity. The final sub-skill is the capacity to use a multitude of sources for creative inspiration, which allows those involved to be innovative (Kohen & Ronsenall, 2002).

The final skills included in Kohen and Rosenalls’ framework (2002) are transnational behavior skills. Behavioral skills are made up of two components: communicative facility and functional addroitness. Communicative facility is made of six skills: facility in the spoken and written languages, interpretation, nonverbal communication, listening and understanding, engaging in meaningful dialogue, and avoiding miscommunication. Functional adroitness is made up of four skills: ability to relate and maintain relationships, ability to apply and adapt on several levels, flexibility when accomplishing tasks, and problem-solving (Kohen & Rosenall, 2002).

While Kohen and Rosenalls’ framework is considerably important for those who are aspiring to achieve cultural competence, the components of it are relative, and individuals can be considered culturally competent despite any variance in skills. According to Lustig and Koester (1996, p. 58), individuals can “be perceived as highly competent in one set of intercultural interactions and only moderately competent in another” (as cited by Kohen & Rosenall, 2002). This framework simply provides a detailed set of skills for individuals who seek to attain cultural competence.

Cultural Training Theoretical Framework and Social Learning Theory

According to Black and Mendenhall (1990), a theoretical framework for cross-cultural training has yet to exist. This begs the question as to what makes cultural training effective. Additionally it represents a part of the gap that will be addressed by this research. While the authors’ research does not delve deep into existing theoretical literature on cross-cultural interaction, it does recapitulate a few points based on other reviews. A theory that has been studied extensively, and that Black and Mendenhalls’ research does consider is learning theory in general. Particularly, they explore Social Learning Theory (SLT), through which Bandura notes that learning is affected by both “observation and experience” (as cited by Black and Mendenhall, 1990, p. 121).

Black and Mendenhall (1990) argue that this theory is relevant to the construction of a cultural training theoretical framework for multiple reasons. First, Bandura (1977) as well as Hilgard and Bower (1975) claim it to be a “synthesis of the cognitive and behavioral learning theories” (as cited by Black & Mendenhall, 1990, p. 121). They note several academics who have praised the theory, including Raymond Noe (1986), who stresses motivational aspects of learning. Additionally, several U.S management training programs use approaches centered response around SLT (Latham & Saari, 1979; Manz & Sims, 1981). As a result, Black and Mendenhall (1990) see reason in using SLT as “the theoretical framework for understanding cross-cultural training and learning” (p. 121).

Cultural Experience and Self-Complexity Theory

In a previously mentioned study conducted by Zoogah and Abbey (2009), research was done on the self-complexity of employees with cross-cultural experience. Showers, Abramson and Hogan argue that self-complexity begins with self-concept, which is how we frame our self-relevant experiences or experiences that affect the self. From these experiences the dynamic self can be created. The dynamic self results from the tendency to play different roles in different situations (as cited by Zoogah & Abbey, 2009, p. 323). Self-complexity is one aspect of the dynamic self. According to Koch and Shepperd, “Individuals with high self-complexity are able to regulate themselves in multiple roles, activities, and behave consistently with the norms of the given context” (as cited by Zoogah & Abbey, 2009, p. 324).

Zoogah and Abbeys’ study (2009) discovered that “employers seemed to prefer employees with cross-cultural experience who are perceived to facilitate achievement of their strategic motivations” (p. 321). They discovered that employers preferred to hire candidates with cross-cultural experience and high self-complexity, or perceived knowledge of themselves. Their research states:

Individuals with cross-cultural experiences therefore seem more likely to help organizations learn adaptively and proactively. Such individuals may use their experiences as a guide and leverage their skills and competencies to help peers and other organizational units learn... Employees with high self-complexity are likely to acquire diverse knowledge from diverse contexts (through their interactions), which can help organizations improve their capacity. High self-complexity is therefore likely to be attractive to employers. The latter may prefer and perceive cross-culturally experienced employees as likely to help their organizations learn (Zoogah & Abbey, 2009, p. 329).

Study Abroad Programs: History, Development and Findings

July 7th, 1923 marked the first American study-abroad program, and the beginning of an era for students who desired to take their studies overseas (Kochanek, 1998). Professor Raymond W. Kirkbride, instructor in the Modern Languages Department at the University of Delaware was the pioneer of SAPs. A World War I veteran, Kirkbride spent some time in the French countryside. While he witnessed the results of international conflict, he also discovered that a strong potential existed for cross-cultural learning through foreign study (Kochanek, 1998). After pitching his unique idea to university president, Walter S. Hullihen, Kirkbride was granted permission to send eight students to France for their junior year. Kirkbride’s plan, which became known as the “Junior Year Abroad” was a smashing success.

The University continued to send student groups to France, and in later years to Switzerland and Germany. Progressively students from other universities including Columbia, Penn, Smith, Harvard and Princeton began participating in the program as well (Kochanek, 1998). Although the program was discontinued due to post-war conditions in Europe and the election of a new president for Delaware, it resumed in 1970, and has continued to flourish through programs all over the country since. Delaware remains a leader in study abroad, offering programs all over the world (Kochanek, 1998).

James Madison University has been providing study abroad opportunities for students since its first SAP in London in 1979. Since then, the program has grown tremendously with over 1000 students going abroad in the 2007-2008 year (Armstrong, 2013). Today, the Office of International Programs at JMU offers semester-long programs in England, Belgium, Spain, Italy and China. Additionally, there are fifty short-term SAPs available to students that span across six continents and extend from four weeks to an entire summer. There are currently 270 JMU courses being offered overseas (OIP, 2013). Study abroad opportunities at JMU are available to all students.

Since the mid-1970’s, the enrollment of students in countries other than their own has increased more than fourfold, with numbers rising from 0.8 million in 1975 to 3.7 million in 2009 (OECD, 2011). That number is increasing by twelve percent every year (Sood, 2012). In the United States specifically, 270,604 students studied abroad for credit in the 2009/10 academic year (Princeton Review, 2012). In terms of gender trends, in the U.S women make up two-thirds of SAP participants (Sood, 2012). The majority of students who study abroad are in their junior year of college, and are primarily white (Princeton Review, 2012). Europe is the leading destination for American SAP students, with Latin America and Asia following (Princeton Review, 2012). In 2009/2010, over seventy percent of students who chose to study abroad did so for one semester or summer term. Less than four percent of students went abroad for a full year. About twenty-one percent of those students were in the business and management field (Princeton Review, 2012).

Multiple studies have noted that students who participate in SAPs have a greater level of world-mindedness (Kitsantas, 2004; Williams, 2005; Golay, 2006; Clarke, Flaherty, Wright & McMillen, 2009). Kitsantas shares her findings that study abroad programs “enhance students’ cross-cultural skills and global understanding”(Kitsantas, 2004), and that SAPs “contribute significantly to the preparation of students to function in a multicultural world and promote international understanding” (Kitsantas, 2004). Another study on this topic conducted in 2009 noted that “…students who study abroad may have greater intercultural proficiency, increased openness to cultural diversity, and become more globally minded than those students remaining in a traditional campus setting. Students who participate in SAPs perceive themselves as being more proficient, approachable, and open to intercultural communication.” (Clarke, Flaherty, Wright & McMillen, 2009, p. 173). What do you do when there aren’t any page #’s for the article? – **print this and count pages

In her research on SAPs and the development of world-mindedness, Patricia Golay (2006) discovered that international experiences (in the form of SAPs) promote changes in global attitudes and enhance cultural learning. She notes however, that other factors might influence students’ development of world-mindedness, such as prior cultural interaction, duration, sojourner expectations, instructional methods and content, and opportunities in the form of experiences that promote critical thinking (Golay, 2006). With Golay’s consideration in mind, the researcher intends to determine exactly what these other factors are.

The SLEPT Framework

As study abroad programs have become increasingly popular throughout the United States, specific standards have been drawn in order to allow students to reach the maximum understanding and appreciation of the country in which they are studying. These standards help faculty and SAP leaders to develop the best curriculum possible for their students. One framework that addresses this is Ortiz’s (2004) SLEPT framework. This framework is made up of five conditions: Social, Legal, Economic, Political and Technological. The conditions are interdependent and mutually reinforcing. Successful curriculums should cover the main elements of each of the conditions. The conditions are also dependent on one another; if one condition is neglected, it will likely impact all of the others. In some short-term SAPs, SLEPT awareness might not be easily attained by direct instruction; however, students can be encouraged to become an active learning community (as cited by Tajes & Ortiz, 2010, p. 19-20). Figure 2.3 features a diagram of the SLEPT framework which illustrates the interconnectivity of the five conditions.

In relation to the study, this framework provides an understanding of what is, or should be involved in a student’s SAP experience. While all SAPs will vary, we can assume that students who go abroad through these programs will have exposure to some, if not all of the elements in this framework.

Figure 2.3 The SLEPT Framework (Ortiz, 2004)

Conceptual Framework

This model presents the conceptual framework for this research. It seeks to explain how cultural training and education, cultural experience and exposure, and study abroad involvement may all factor into the formation of cultural competence. This model also aims to display how the three smaller elements may work together or separately. Regardless of whether they are working collectively or separately, they all lead to an increased amount of cultural competence. This study intends to reveal is how the elements can be conjoined in order to produce the highest level of competence possible. The researcher aims to support businesses that conduct international affairs in the hiring and training of employees who display this highest form of cultural competence.

Chapter ThreeMethodology

Research Design

The purpose of this study is to identify the best possible approach to achieving the highest level of cultural competence in individuals by examining the effectiveness of cultural training, multi-cultural exposure, and involvement in Study Abroad Programs. This will be determined by assessing both individual comfort with and ability to interact with people from other countries. The researcher will attempt to answer the research questions by engaging in a mixed-methods research design, using both quantitative closed-ended and qualitative open-ended survey questions. By including a combination of these two types of questions, the researcher intends to gain the most relative results in order to review and assess the research questions.

Description of Population and Sample

The researcher plans to distribute a survey to a convenience sample consisting of students enrolled in the College of Business at James Madison University. The students will range from ages 17 to 50 and will be made up of various nationalities and races. The sample will include freshmen, sophomores, juniors, seniors and graduate students. All participants will have a minimum of a high school diploma as well as some college education. The surveys will be distributed to students who have declared a business major, as well as those who have been officially accepted into the Business program.

Data Collection Instruments

The researcher will conduct surveys to determine cultural competence in terms of self-reported data. Students will answer questions regarding types of classes they have taken, exposure they have had to other nationalities, and if they have been involved in any SAPs. The survey will consist of open-ended questions, allowing free reflection, and closed-ended questions, in which participants must make one or more selections from provided responses. Examples of expected closed-ended questions are reflected in Figures 3.1, and examples of expected open-ended questions are reflected in Figures 3.2. For the closed-ended questions, survey respondents will encounter Likert-scale and multiple-choice responses. The researcher eliminate the “neutral” option, therefore allowing for a highly direct response. Non-Likert-scale questions will include items such as:

· What is your gender? (Male, Female, Other)

· Are you an international student? (Yes, No)

· Do you have any relatives who have lived in a foreign country for more than 5 consecutive years? (aside from military affiliation) (Yes, No)

· Have you ever participated in a JMU-sponsored Study Abroad Program? (Yes, No)

Figure 3.1 Example of Closed-ended Question

Figure 3.2 Example of Open-ended Questions

· What is your legal nationality?

· Please list all internationally focused courses that you have taken at JMU.

The surveys distributed will be made up of multiple parts. These parts will include questions about the subject’s international experience/exposure, training/education or participation in SAPS. An additional component of the survey will gauge the individual’s comfort levels in terms of cultural competency. Each subject will provide information on how he or she feels in different situations in which a high level of cultural competency would be ideal. Students will provide self-reported data for this component of the survey.

In order to ensure the research data is valid and reliable, the researcher will send the research materials and instrumentation proposal for review to a James Madison University faculty member who has a background in cultural competence education. All student participants will receive the same survey. Students will have two weeks total to complete the survey. The researcher will not serve as a participant in the surveying process, aside from distributing the surveys, collecting the data, and analyzing the results. This research should prove valid and reliable since it uses both quantitative and qualitative items that allow comparison of responses.

Data Analysis

For the purpose of this research, return percentages and sample size will be considered. The qualitative data from the surveys will be converted to graphs for visual analysis. The results will be compared between each respondent, and themes will be noted and analyzed. Additionally, these responses will be compared to closed-ended question responses from the sample group. The quantitative data will be converted to graphs for visual analysis as well.

Internal and External Validity, Reliability, Generalizability, and Limitations

The most probable threats to validity in this study include mortality, history, and attitude of subjects. Mortality is a threat particularly with college students. Making the surveys as concise as possible will minimize this. Researcher bias also serves as a threat to validity. In order to avoid this, the study will be as standardized as possible. Additionally, the researcher will have no affiliation to or prior interaction with the participants. The surveys will be distributed via email, so that the potential of face-to-face encounters between the researcher and the subjects will be eliminated. In order to ensure the reliability of the surveys, they will be rigorously tested on trial subjects. The results of each individual test will be discarded following analysis (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006).

The results of this study may be generalizable to other colleges and organizations with limitations. Depending on the success of this study, the findings may be applicable to companies that do business abroad. With that said, the results cannot be generalized to all organizations that do business abroad because of factors like difference in location (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006).

Description and Justification of Statistical Techniques

A surveying method will be utilized for this study to attain the most applicable data for this topic of research. With the anticipation of a medium-sized sample group, and the potential of some highly detailed responses, survey research is the best way to conduct this particularly study in a timely and efficient manner. Additionally, conducting surveys will allow for the retrieval of both quantitative and qualitative data, which will be vital to providing a complete study. If the proposed plan does not yield a meaningful sample size, the data collection period will be lengthened.

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