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  • CHAPTER II

    Review of Related Literature

    This chapter consists of related literature and studies that discuss

    the impact of parental Involvement in Academic performance of Bachelor of

    Science in nursing of Cotabato Medical Foundation College Inc. Several

    sources of this literature and studies are excerpt from journals, published articles and thesis.

    Parental involvement

    Parental involvement is the level of participation that a parent has in

    their childs education and school. Many parents are tremendously involved,

    often volunteering to help in their childs classroom, communicating well

    with their childs teachers, assisting with homework, and understanding

    their childs individual academic strengths and weaknesses. Unfortunately

    there are also many parents who are not directly involved with their childs

    education. Many schools have programs aimed at increasing parental

    involvement such as game nights, home activities, and assorted

    opportunities for volunteers. Another reality of parental involvement is that it

    typically decreases as the child gets older.(http://teaching.about.com/od/J-Rteachingvocabulary/g/Parental-Involvement.htm)

  • 11

    The Concept of Academic Performance.

    Academic performance refers to how students deal with their studies

    and how they cope with or accomplish different tasks given to them by their

    teachers.

    Academic performance is the ability to study and remember facts

    and being able to communicate your knowledge verbally or down on

    paper.(Ret. from http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_meant_by_academic_performance)

    Parental Involvement and Student Achievement: A Meta-Analysis

    The results of the meta-analysis indicate that parental involvement is

    associated with higher student achievement outcomes. These findings

    emerged consistently whether the outcome measures were grades,

    standardized test scores, or a variety of other measures, including teacher

    ratings. This trend holds not only for parental involvement overall but for

    most components of parental involvement that were examined in the meta-

    analysis. Moreover, the pattern holds not only for the overall student

    population but for minority students as well. For the overall population of

    students, on average, the achievement scores of children with highly

    involved parents was higher than children with less involved parents. This

    academic advantage for those parents who were highly involved in their

    education averaged about .5 .6 of a standard deviation for overall

  • 12

    educational outcomes, grades, and academic achievement. In other words,

    the academic achievement score distribution or range of scores for children

    whose parents were highly involved in their education was substantially

    higher than that of their counterparts whose parents were less

    involved.(http://www.hfrp.org/publications-resources/browse-our-publications/parental-involvement-and-student-achievement-a-meta-

    analysis)

    Parental Involvement Strongly Impacts Student Achievement

    Researchers Karen Smith Conway, professor of economics at the

    University of New Hampshire, and her colleague Andrew Houtenville, senior

    research associate at New Editions Consulting, found that parental

    involvement has a strong, positive effect on student achievement.

    Parents seemed particularly interested in the academic

    achievements of their daughters. The researchers found parents spent

    more time talking to their daughters about their school work during

    dinnertime discussions.

    There are a number of theories about why girls seem to garner

    more attention from their parents than boys. One possibility is that girls are

    more communicative with their parents so these conversations about

    academics are easier for parents to have with their daughters, Conway

    said.

  • 13

    The researchers also found that parents may reduce their efforts

    when school resources increase, thus diminishing the effects of improved

    school resources.

    As an economist, I look for reactions to a specific action so it is not

    surprising to me that parents may scale back their involvement with their

    childs education when a school adds resources. As a result, increasing

    school resources may not be as effective as we expect since they may

    diminish parental involvement, Conway said.

    The researchers used national data from more than 10,000 eighth-

    grade students in public and private schools, their parents, teachers, and

    school administrators. The researchers were particularly interested in how

    frequently parents discussed activities or events of particular interest to the

    child, discussed things the child studied in class, discussed selecting

    courses or programs at school, attended a school meeting, and volunteered

    at the childs school.

    To evaluate school resources, the researchers looked at per-pupil

    expenditures on instructional salaries and a set of five school

    characteristics: student-teacher ratio, lowest salary received by a teacher,

    percentage of teachers with a masters or a doctoral degree, percentage of

    the student body not in the schools subsidized lunch program, and

    percentage of nonminority students in the student body.

  • 14

    (Andrew J. Houtenville and Karen Smith Conway. Parental Effort, School Resources, and Student Achievement. J. Human Resources, XLIII (2): 437-453)

    Parents Need an Attitude Adjustment to Improve Their Children's Homework Motivation.

    In the study published in Learning and Individual Differences, BGU

    researchers found that if parents had a more positive, supportive attitude

    and communicated the learning value as motivation, rather than focusing on

    completing an assignment or getting a higher grade, then the child's attitude

    and motivation would improve.

    Dr. Idit Katz, Dr. Avi Kaplan and doctoral student Tamara

    Buzukashvily, of BGU's Department of Education, recommend parents give

    their children some choices, including when or where to do homework.

    "Parents can improve a sense of competence by allowing children to

    structure their own tasks and by giving the child the feeling that he is loved

    and admired no matter how successful he or she is in math or language,"

    the researchers said.

    The study also shows that parents should ask themselves about their

    own motivations, attitudes and competence before trying to "treat" or

    "change" the child. Moreover, educational programs that try to change the

  • 15

    attitude and motivation of students toward homework should not keep the

    parents "out of the loop" as their behavior is essential.

    "Little formal research has been conducted about the home

    environment where homework is taking place, although it has been an

    integral part of education and is a controversial yet often used educational

    practice," according to the study. "The home environment is just as important for instilling positive motivation as the school is."

    The researchers conducted the study at two elementary schools with

    135 fourth graders and one of each child's parents. The students completed

    questionnaires regarding their level of motivation to do homework, while

    parents answered another survey on their willingness to help. This allowed

    perceptions of the home environment to be examined from both

    perspectives.

    Among the sample, more than 60 percent of parents reported being

    involved with their child's homework once a week and 35 percent indicated

    being involved every day or more than once a week. Only four percent said

    they are never involved in their child's homework.(Idit Katz, Avi Kaplan, Tamara Buzukashvily. The role of parents' motivation in students'

    autonomous motivation for doing homework. Learning and Individual

    Differences, 2011; 21 (4): 376 DOI)

  • 16

    Parental Involvement in Homework

    According to Kathleen V. Hoover-Dempsey stated that taken

    together, this literature suggests that parents decide to become involved in

    students homework because they believe they should be involved, believe

    the involvement will make a difference, and perceive that their involvement

    is wanted and expected. Parents homework involvement, once engaged,

    includes a wide variety of activities, ranging from the establishment of home

    structures supportive of learning to complex patterns of interactive behavior

    intended to enhance the childs understanding of homework in particular

    and learning processes in general. The literature also suggests that parents

    involvement activities influence student outcomes through modeling,

    reinforcement, and instruction. Operating through these broad mechanisms,

    parents involvement activities have been positively related to student

    achievement and, perhaps even more importantly, to student attributes

    proximally related to achievement (e.g., attitudes toward homework, perceptions of personal competence, self-regulation).Although the literature as a whole supports these summary observations, the body of empirical

    work on parental involvement in homework might be strengthened in

    several respects. The most critical need is for theoretically and empirically

    grounded research focused specifically on the content, processes, and

    outcomes of parents involvement in homework. The studies have

    illuminated several aspects of parents involvement; most notably the range

  • 17

    of activities included in parents efforts to help their children with homework

    and selected outcomes associated with those involvement behaviors. The

    majority of these studies, however, has defined homework involvement in relatively unidimensional terms or has embedded the topic within inquiry

    focused more directly on related issues. The importance of parents to

    childrens school accomplishments and the success of notable homework

    intervention programs underscore the importance of continued inquiry into

    parents roles and influence in their childrens homework performance.

    Particularly in need of specific examination are parents motivations for

    engaging in homework help, the dynamics of effective parentchild

    interactions during homework involvement and the specific mechanisms

    responsible for involvements influence on student outcomes. Similarly

    important are continuing efforts, building on interventions examined in some

    of the studies reviewed here, to develop and test well-designed approaches

    to improving school invitations to involvement. Developmental and

    curricular considerations also suggest the importance of examining

    appropriate variations in parents homework involvement across time, as

    well as shifts in outcomes associated with parental involvement across the

    years of schooling. This set of efforts seems particularly important in light of

    findings that many parentsacross socioeconomic, ethnic, and geographic

    groupsassume that they should be involved in homework and value-

    specific guidance for involvement from schools and teachers. Implications

  • 18

    for schools in this body of work center in part on responses to parents

    motivations and abilities for involvement in homework. Parents become

    involved in homework

    In so far as they believe they have a role to play, believe their

    involvement will make a difference, and perceive that their children and

    teachers want their involvement. Schools may take specific steps to

    enhance each of these motivations. For example, they may communicate

    directly and specifically why and how involvement is important to childrens

    learning; they may offer specific suggestions for involvement that support

    parental assumptions that they do indeed have a role to play in their

    childrens success and that their activities make a difference. They may

    also offer explicit and specific invitations to involvement. Such steps have

    been successful in eliciting and enhancing parental involvement as

    reflected in studies incorporating both broad examinations of teachers

    involvement practices and relatively detailed inquiries into parents

    responses to school invitations. School practices may also be informed and

    improved by understanding the broad range of activities that characterize

    parents homework involvement and the varied student outcomes

    associated with involvement. The range of activities offers a wide set of

    suggestions for specific school invitations to involvement, appropriate for

    specific developmental levels or grades, learning content and family

    circumstances. The range of student outcomes associated with parents

  • 19

    involvement suggests that schools might well focus on specific proximal

    outcomesfor example, attitudes about homework, perceptions of personal

    competence, self-regulatory strategiesas particularly amenable to

    parental influence. The observed and potential benefits of parental support

    for childrens homework learning suggest strongly the wisdom of increased

    support for well-grounded research designed to illuminatesystematically,

    across developmental levels and varied learning taskswhy and under

    what conditions parents involvement benefits student learning. The

    success of schools and the children they serve can only be enhanced by

    increased understanding of parents roles, activities, and influence in the

    development of student success. (Kathleen V. Hoover-Dempsey, 2001.)

    Parental Involvement: A Research Brief for Practitioners

    Epstein stated that the draw three key conclusions about parental

    involvement. First, parental involvement tends to decline across the grades

    unless schools make conscious efforts to develop and implement

    partnerships with parents. Reasons for this declining pattern include

    parents lack of familiarity with curriculum at the higher grades; adolescents

    preferences to have their parents stay involved in less visible ways; parents

    decisions to return to the work force once their children gain more

    independence; and secondary teachers lack of awareness of how to

    effectively involve parents at the higher levels. Second, affluent parents

    tend to be involved in school more often and in positive ways, whereas

  • 20

    economically distressed parents have limited contact with schools, and

    usually in situations dealing with students achievement or behavior.

    Schools that work on building relationships with all parents, however, can

    equalize the involvement of all socioeconomic groups. Finally, single

    parents, employed parents, fathers, and parents who live far from the

    school, on average, are less involved in the school unless the school

    organizes opportunities that consider these parents needs and

    circumstances. Although these patterns are generally observable among

    schools, they can be overcome if schools develop programs that include

    families that otherwise would not become involved on their own.

    The degree and nature of impact on student achievement is

    somewhat debated in the literature. Fan and Chens (2001) meta-analysis of the literature concerning the connection between parental involvement

    and students academic achievement suggests a moderate to practically

    meaningful relationship. The relationship seems to be more general than

    specific, indicating that parental involvement has an overall effect on

    students success, rather than a direct effect on any particular subject area. Their research finds parents expectations and dreams for their childrens

    academic achievement are the strongest factor influencing students school

    performance. Bastiani (2000) echoes a similar challenge by raising the question of identifying a clear connection between parents contributions

    and student progress.

  • 21

    Despite the ambiguity in measuring the academic impact of parental

    involvement, various in-depth studies have established a relationship.

    Henderson and Berla (1994) synthesized over sixty studies regarding the effects of family involvement on student achievement. Their work attributes

    to parental involvement effects that include higher grades and test scores,

    increased homework completion, improved school attendance, more

    positive attitudes, fewer discipline problems, increased high school

    completion rates, decreased school leaving rates, and greater participation

    in postsecondary education. Importantly, like Epstein, Henderson and Berla

    suggest parents involvement can contribute to these outcomes from early

    childhood through high school. Studies conducted among specific grades

    and subject areas support the contention that parental involvement can influence students academic achievement regardless of the students age

    or subject. For example, Stegelin (2003), Wirtz & Schumacher (2003), and Hertz-Lazarowitz & Horovitz (2002) focused on early childhood education and literacy, noting a link between families who engage in literacy activities

    at home and their childrens success with reading and writing. Strategies

    such as reading with the child, discussing stories, and creating a book-

    friendly environment contribute to the development of childrens literacy

    skills and positive attitudes toward reading. Teachers attitudes toward

    involving parents influence the extent to which parents are involved in their

    childrens school. A report by West (2000) discusses an elementary

  • 22

    teachers efforts to increase parent teacher communication, and its effect

    on students success in reading. Findings from this study show that parent-

    teacher communication can motivate students to complete reading

    homework, which results in better quiz and test scores. This particular

    report demonstrates the importance of teachers initiating positive contact

    with parents, and the potential effect it can have on students achievement

    in school. Studies of the middle and secondary grades reflect the above

    findings. It is recognized that adolescents both desire and require more

    independence. Van Voorhis (2001) and Simon (2001) found that regardless of students background or prior school achievement, involving parents in

    various ways had a positive

    Impact on achievement, attendance, behavior, and course credits

    completed. Significantly, parental guidance and support of their adolescent

    students is critical to secondary students school and future success

    (Sanders & Epstein, 2000). Although parental involvement has reached a higher level of acceptance today as a key factor in improving schools,

    acceptance does not always translate into implementation, commitment, or

    creativity (Drake, 2000). Central to this challenge is educators and administrators uncertainty about initiating and maintaining involvement that

    is meaningful and mutually beneficial for the school, the family, and the

    student.

  • 23

    The most promising practices involving parents seem to be those

    that embrace collaboration among teachers, parents, and students.

    Fundamental to this type of cooperation is a shared definition of

    meaningful parental involvement. There is evidence of disjuncture between professionals and parents understanding of partnership. Fine

    (1993) for example, claims a hierarchical relationship between teachers and parents prevails, such that professionals may assume parents regard their

    position as equally influential, but parents themselves defer to

    professionals expertise. Beck and Murphy (1999) agree that although schools set up structures, such as school councils or collaborative teams,

    decision-making ultimately rests in the professionals who possess

    specialized knowledge inaccessible to most parents.

    They further contend that organizational changes such as site-based

    decision-making that attempts to include parents have the least positive

    effect on parents of minority groups. Researching the effects of parent

    involvement practices on student achievement in American schools under

    the No Child Left behind Act, D.Agostino, Hedges, Wong, and Borman

    (2001) also found that programs which attempt to involve parents at the school through school-sponsored activities or governance structures have a

    negligible impact on student achievement. Rather, parent programs that

    provide resources and assistance that parents may use with their children

    at home are more likely to have an effect on students academic progress.

  • 24

    Gewirtz, Bowe, and Balls (1995) study of school choice in Britain is important when considering diversity among parents. The school choice

    movement assumes a monolithic parent group; the idea that parents can

    and will respond similarly to opportunities to make decisions for their

    children, or participate in their childrens schools is, in fact, erroneous. Their

    study highlighted those inequalities in social and economic capital influence

    parents level of participation and ability to advocate for their children.

    Specifically, middle to upper income parents capitalize on

    opportunities to influence their childrens schooling, whereas lower income

    parents are disadvantaged because of circumstance or skill. Croziers

    (2000) qualitative study of parents, teachers, and students reinforces that central to understanding the nature of the parent-school relationship and

    the influences upon it is the issue of social-class Together, Fine, Beck and

    Murphy, Gewirtz, Bowe, and Ball, and Crozier point to the importance of

    dialogue between schools and families to identify encouraging and

    meaningful ways to engage all parents for the benefit of all children.

    Many studies have documented the importance of parental

    involvement in childrens homework. Callahan, Rademacher, and Hildreth

    (1998) find that parents involvement with at-risk sixth and seventh grade students improved students homework performance. Central to this

    success, however, is the schools development of training programs for

  • 25

    parents which aim to provide parents with strategies for assisting and

    supporting their children at home. There is some indication in the research

    that diverse educational backgrounds influence the nature and frequency of

    parents helping their children with homework assignments. Balli, Demo, and

    Wedman (1998) report that when teachers prompt parents to become involved with math homework, parent involvement significantly increases.

    Importantly, this study shows that two-parent families are more likely to help

    with homework than single-parent families. Home circumstances and family

    structures are therefore necessary considerations for schools aiming to

    increase the level of parental involvement with homework. Greene,

    Tichener, and Mercedes (2003) offer specific strategies for parents to participate in schools. Suggestions include individual activities with children,

    setting up homework space and routine, discussing needed resources for

    home supervision with teachers, or reflecting on ones own assumptions

    about school. Volunteering in the school and the community are other

    positive ways that parents can become involved, and on their own terms.

    Although certain types of parent involvement such as discussions about

    homework and school-related topics have positive effects on homework

    completion, there is research that contradicts this finding. Cooper, Lindsay,

    and Nye (2000) suggest that parenting style plays a part in the effectiveness of parents involvement in their childrens homework. In their

    survey of over 700 parents of elementary, middle, and high school students,

  • 26

    two-thirds of parents reported helping their children with homework was

    negative or inappropriate. Specifically, in some cases parents helped their

    children with homework in order to have them finish it faster, and in other

    cases parents made homework completion more difficult for the student.

    These findings speak to the importance of school-home discussions that

    will encourage interactions that support student learning.

    Comprehensive parent programs will incorporate the six keys into an

    action plan that is developed and implemented by an Action Team of

    parents, teachers, students, administration, and community members.

    Lunenberg and Irby (2002) summarize seven other models of parent involvement alongside Epsteins school-home-community partnership

    model including: (1) Gordons systems approach; (2) the Systems Development Corporation study; (3) Bergers role categories; (4) Chavkin and Williams parent involvement role; (5) Honigs early childhood education model; (6) Jones levels of parent involvement; and (7) language minority parents involvement approach. Their paper further suggests developing a

    family partnership center, establishing parent centers or cooperatives, and

    creating new options for parents as potential strategies for successfully

    engaging parents. At the heart of parental involvement seems to be open

    and effective communication. Much research is devoted to helping teachers

    and parents establish positive relationships. Swick (2003) examines the role

  • 27

    of culture in the communication process, and emphasizes cultural

    differences as a means to strengthen relationships. Sharing information,

    empowering parents, dismantling barriers to understanding and

    cooperation, and recognizing parents strengths, priorities, and perspectives

    is fundamental to building strong relationships between the home and the

    school. Part of this process implies a responsibility on the part of teachers

    to learn about their students families. Goodwin and King (2002) have produced a booklet entitled Culturally Responsive Parental Involvement:

    Concrete Understandings and Basic Strategies, which explores teachers

    culturally biased beliefs. Helpful concepts explored in this document include

    the myths about parents who do not visit school as being unconcerned, how

    to meet culturally diverse needs, and culturally sensitive strategies for

    involving parents. There are many concrete strategies for involving parents

    in schools discussed in the literature. Common to this corpus, however, is

    the need for schools to gauge their contexts in order to meet the needs of

    those they serve.(Bonnie Stelmack, Parental Involvement: A Research Brief for Practitioners, University of Alberta)

    The Benefits of Parent Involvement: What Research Has to Say

    Researchers have evidence for the positive effects of parent

    involvement on children, families, and school when schools and parents

  • 28

    continuously support and encourage the children's learning and

    development (Eccles & Harold, 1993; Illinois State Board of Education, 1993). According to Henderson and Berla (1994), "the most accurate predictor of a student's achievement in school is not income or social status

    but the extent to which that student's family is able to: Create a home

    environment that encourages learning; Express high (but not unrealistic) expectations for their children's achievement and future careers; Become

    involved in their children's education at school and in the community.

    Henderson and Berla (1994) reviewed and analyzed eighty-five studies that documented the comprehensive benefits of parent involvement in

    children's education. This and other studies show that parent involvement

    activities that are effectively planned and well implemented result in

    substantial benefits to children, parents, educators, and the school. Benefits

    for the Children: Children tend to achieve more, regardless of ethnic or

    racial background, socioeconomic status, or parents' education level.

    Children generally achieve better grades, test scores, and attendance.

    Children consistently complete their homework. Children have better self-

    esteem, are more self-disciplined, and show higher aspirations and

    motivation toward school. Children's positive attitude about school often

    results in improved behavior in school and less suspension for disciplinary

    reasons. Fewer children are being placed in special education and remedial

    classes. Children from diverse cultural backgrounds tend to do better when

  • 29

    parents and professionals work together to bridge the gap between the

    culture at home and the culture in school. Junior high and high school

    students whose parents remain involved usually make better transitions and

    are less likely to drop out of school.

    Benefits for the Parents: Parents increase their interaction and

    discussion with their children and are more responsive and sensitive to their

    children's social, emotional, and intellectual developmental needs. Parents

    are more confident in their parenting and decision-making skills. As parents

    gain more knowledge of child development, there is more use of affection

    and positive reinforcement and less punishment on their children. Parents

    have a better understanding of the teacher's job and school curriculum. When parents are aware of what their children are learning, they are more

    likely to help when they are requested by teachers to become more

    involved in their children's learning activities at home. Parents' perceptions

    of the school are improved and there are stronger ties and commitment to

    the school. Parents are more aware of, and become more active regarding,

    policies that affect their children's education when parents are requested by

    school to be part of the decision-making team. Benefits for the Educators:

    When schools have a high percentage of involved parents in and out of

    schools, teachers and principals are more likely to experience higher

    morale. Teachers and principals often earn greater respect for their

    profession from the parents. Consistent parent involvement leads to

  • 30

    improved communication and relations between parents, teachers, and

    administrators. Teachers and principals acquire a better understanding of

    families' cultures and diversity, and they form deeper respect for parents'

    abilities and time. Teachers and principals report an increase in job satisfaction. Benefits for the School: Schools that actively involve parents

    and the community tend to establish better reputations in the community.

    Schools also experience better community support. School programs that

    encourage and involve parents usually do better and have higher quality

    programs than programs that do not involve parents.(M. F. G. Olsen, "The Benefits of Parent Involvement: What Research Has to Say," in Home

    School : Working Successfully with Parent and Family, New Jersey.USA,

    merrill, an imprint of Pearson Education Inc., 2008 edition, pp. 129-130.)

    Why Is Parental Involvement Important?

    When parents are involved in their childrens education, kids do

    better in school. Want to learn how to help your child achieve and succeed?

    Read on. In study after study, researchers discover how important it is for

    parents to be actively involved in their childs education. Here are some of

    the findings of major research into parental involvement: When parents are involved in their childrens education at home, they do better in school. And

    when parents are involved in school, children go farther in school and the

    schools they go to are better. The family makes critical contributions to

  • 31

    student achievement from preschool through high school. A home

    environment that encourages learning is more important to student

    achievement than income, educational level or cultural background. When

    children and parents talk regularly about school, children perform better

    academically. Three kinds of parental involvement at home are consistently

    associated with higher student achievement: actively organizing and

    monitoring a childs time, Why Is Parental Involvement Important? Helping

    with home work and discussing school matters. The earlier that parent

    involvement begins in a childs educational process, the more powerful the

    effects Positive results of parental involvement.

    (http://www.nieconnects.com/gearup/0801_pdf/gearup_jan_4.pdf.)