chapter ii status of tribes in india: retrospects and...
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CHAPTER II
STATUS OF TRIBES IN INDIA:RETROSPECTS AND PROSPECTS
2.0 Introduction
In this chapter the status of tribal people in India has been
addressed while detailing their status historically and the likely future
of theirs. The retrospective aspects of tribe definition, their
classification, their demographics, their problems have been detailed
as part of such historical analysis. Further the prospective issues like
tribal development administration, various policies, plans and the
programmes of tribal development of chenchus in Andhra Pradesh
state.
2.1. Retrospect of tribal people status
A Tribe, viewed historically developed or developmentally, consists of
a social group existing before the development of, or outside of,
states. Many anthropologists use the term Tribal Society to refer to
societies organized largely on the basis of kinship, especially
corporate descents groups. Some theorists hold that tribes represent
a stage in social evolution intermediate between bands and states
(Wikipedia, 2010).
Adivasi is a term for a heterogeneous set of ethnic and tribal groups
claimed to be the aboriginal population of India. The constitution of
India, Article 366(25) defines Scheduled Tribes as “such Tribes or
tribal communities or part of groups within such tribes or tribal
communities as are deemed under Article 342 to the scheduled tribes
(STs) for the purposes of this constitution “in Article 342, the
procedure to be followed for specification of a scheduled tribe is
prescribed. However, it does not contain the criterion for the
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specification any community as scheduled tribe. An often used
criterion is based on attributes such as:
1. Geographical isolation they live in cloistered, exclusive, remote
and inhospitable areas such as hills and forests.
2. Backwardness-their livelihood is based on primitive agriculture,
a low-value closed economy with low levels of literacy and
health.
3. Distinctive culture, language and religion- communities have
developed their own distinctive culture, language and religion.
4. Shyness of contacts- they have a marginal degree of contact
with other cultures and people.
The scheduled tribe groups who were identified as more backward
communities among the tribal population groups have been
categorized as ‘Primitive Tribal Groups’(PTGs) by the government at
the centre in 1975. Tribals are not part of the caste system, and
usually constitute egalitarian societies. Christian tribals do not
automatically lose their traditional rules.
The "Tribe" commonly signifies a group of people speaking a
common language, observing uniform rules of social organization and
working together for common purpose. The other typical
characteristics of Tribe include a common name, a contiguous
territory, a relatively uniform culture or way of life and a tradition of
common descent. According to another contention, tribe is generally
used to denote group of primitive or barbarous clans under
recognized chiefs.
Tribe is defined by various scholars differently. But the
commonalities identifying by all the scholars were like, common
cultures, geographical identification and small population size and
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particular socio-political aspects. From these common aspects, the
scholars like Majumdar (1950), Ralph Linton (1953), Radclifle
Brown(1955), Lewis(1970), etc., defined the tribe in the following.
According to oxford dictionary (2001), "A tribe is a group of people in
a primitive or barbarous stage of development, acknowledging the
authorities of a chief and usually regarding themselves as having a
common ancestor".
To be more exhaustive, Majumdar (1963), defined, "Tribe as a social
group with territorial affiliation, endogenous, with no specialization of
functions, ruled by tribal officers, hereditary or otherwise, united in
language or dialect, recognizing social distract with other tribes or
castes, without any social obloquies attaching to them, as it does in
the caste structure, following tribes traditions, beliefs and customs,
illiberal of naturalization of ideas from alien sources, above all
conscious of homogeneity of ethnic and territorial integration".
Similarly, Linton (1953) stated that "A tribe is a group of bonds
occupying a contiguous territory or territories and having a feeling of
unity deriving from a numerous similarities in culture, frequent
contacts and a certain community interest".
In a comprehensive manner, Lewis Oscr (1970), "Tribal societies are
small in scale, are restricted in a spatial and temporal range of their
social, legal and political relations, and possess a morality, a religion
and world-view of corresponding dimensions. Characteristically too,
tribal languages are unwritten, and hence, the extent communication
both in time and space is inevitably narrow. At the same time, tribal
societies exhibit a remarkable economy of design and have a
compactness and self -sufficiency lacking in modern society".
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Adding another dimension, Radclifle Brown (1955), "A tribe is a
group united by a common name in which the members take a pride
by common language, by a common territory, and by a feeling that
all who do not share their name are outsiders, enemies in fact".
Further, Imperial Gazetteer (1909) of India given the meaning of
"Tribe as a collection of families bearing a common name, speaking a
'common dialect, occupying or professing to occupy a common
territory and is not usually endogenous, though originally it might
have been so".
All the above stated definitions reveal that the meaning of tribe
varied and exhaustive, putting all together, will result in a definition
that has a greater utility value for sociological researchers. Tribes in
India Due to multiplicity of factors and complexity of problems
involved, it is not easy to classify Indian tribes into distinct groups.
Various development programmes under the new development
schemes have been implemented and are under implementation, for
which monitoring is carried out to suitably review the course of action
as well to assess the delivery of benefits to the target groups.
Evaluation studies therefore are carried out in various fields by
individuals, Autonomous bodies, 14 Tribal Research Institutes, of 14
states, programme evaluation organization (A wing of Planning
Commission, Government of India) and related departments of the
Universities and Colleges (Sharma, 2001).
A relative look at systematic and scientific study of Indian people and
their cultures has often been deplored by the Indian social scientists.
Knowledge of people and culture is regarded as a pre-requisite for an
efficient administrative system and strategy of development. Indian
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society, a characterization of unity in diversity, has many sections of
which the tribals constitute more than eight percent of the population
which belongs generally to the under privileged.
India is a unique place in the tribal community of the world. In our
country that tribal population, which is numerically considerable, is
concentrated in various tribal belts as well as the general population.
India is the natural abode of hundreds tribal communities and their
population according to 2001 census is 8.43 cores, consisting about
8.08 percent of the total population. They occupy around 15 percent
of the total geographical are of the country, usually in difficult and in
hospitable terrain in the hills, valleys and agency areas.
The scheduled tribes in India or broadly composed of more 400 tribal
groups speaking about 105 languages and 225 subsidiary dialects.
Majority of the tribal people live in remote areas, mostly forest and
hill areas, while some of them are living in the areas adjacent to
villages. They have specific kind of culture, tradition and
characteristics. But the waste majority of tribal people have been
living below the poverty line. Poverty, illiteracy and ignorance are the
common characteristics of the tribals (Nadim, 1994).
A plethora of sociological studies on several populations in the
country have been conducted and well documented. However,
studies on tribal population have been sparse. The present study is
all about the understanding of the tribal population in the district of
Mahabubnagar, with regard to the environment and sustainable
development indigenous chenchu tribes, one of the primitive tribes of
this land.
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Taking various characteristics into consideration the tribes of India
may be classified on the basis of their:
a. Territorial distribution
b. Linguistic affiliation
c. Physical and racial characteristics
d. Occupation or economy
e. Cultural contact
f. Religious beliefs.
2.2 Geographical Classification
Looking at the physical map of India and the distribution of tribal
population we find that both geography as well as Tribe's
demography permits a regional grouping and a zonal classification.
Guha has classified Indian Tribes into three zones.
i) North and North-eastern Zone
ii) The Central or the Middle Zone
iii) The Southern Zone
i) North and North-eastern Zone : This zone consists of the sub-
Himalayan region and the mountain valleys of the Eastern frontiers
of India. The tribal people of Assam, Manipur and Tripura may be
included in the eastern part of this geographical zone while in the
northern part are included the tribes of eastern Kashmir, eastern
Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Northern Uttar Pradesh. This zone is
inhabited by tribes like the Guruny, Limbu, Lepeha, Garo, Khasi,
Naga and others.
ii) The Central or Middle Zone : This zone consists of plateaus and
mountainous belt between the Indo-Gangetic plain to the North and
roughly the Krishna River to the South and is separated from the
Northeastern zone by the full gap between the Goro hills and
Rajmalal hills.
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In this zone tribal people of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Bharat, Southern Rajasthan, Northern Maharashtra, Bihar and Orissa
are concentrated. Northern Rajasthan, Southern Maharashtra and
Bastar from the peripheral' areas of the zone are also includes there.
The main tribes found in this zone are Sahara, Santhal, Munde,
Oraon, Ho and Bhil, etc.
iii) The Southern Zone : This zone consists part of Southern India
which falls South of the river Krishna stretching from Wynaad to
Cape Comorin, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Courg, Travancore,
Cochin, Tamil Nadu, etc. Right from the North-east of this zone, the
Chenchu tribe occupy the area of the Nallamallai hills across the
Krishna and erst-while Hyderabad State. The tribes like Chenchu,
Kota, Toda, Makyam, Lambada, Yarukula, etc., inhibit in this zone. In
India, the primitive tribe groups are identified with certain features
like:
They live away from the civilized world in the most inaccessible part
of both forests and hills. They belong either to one of the three
stocks namely, Negritos, Austroloids or Mongoloids. They speak the
same tribal dialect. They profess a primitive religion as "Animism' in
which the worship of ghosts and spirits is the most important
element.
They follow primitive occupations such as gleaming, hunting and
gathering of forest produce.
1. They are largely carnivorous or flesh or meat eaters.
2. They live either naked or semi-naked using tree barks and
leaves for clothing.
3. They have nomadic habits and love to drink and dance.
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2.3 Tribal Groups in Andhra Pradesh
There are more than 33 tribal groups live in A.P. They are as follows:
Andh, Bajata, Bhil, Chenchu, Chenchuwar Gadabas,Gond, Naikpod,
Rajgond, Goudu (in the Agency tracts), Hill Reddis Jatapus Kammara,
Kattunayakan, Kolam, Mannervarlu, Konda Dhoras, Konda Kapus,
Kondareddis, Kondhs, Kodi, Kodhu, Desayak Kondhs, Dongria
Kondhs, Kauttiya Kondhs, Tikiria Kondhs, Yenity, Kondhs, Kotia,
Bentho Oriya, Bartrika, Dhulia, Dulia, Holva, Paiko, Putiya,
Sanrona, Sidhopaiko, Koya, Goud, Rajah, Rasha Koya, Lingadhari
Koya (ordinary), Kottu Koya,Bhine Koya, Rajkoya, Kulia,Malis
(excluding Adilabad, Hyderabad, Karimnagar, Khammam,
Mahabubnagar, Medak, Nalgonda, Nizamabad and Warangal
District), Manna Dhora,Mukha Ohora, Nooka Ohora,Nayaks (in the
Agency Tracts), Pardhan, Porja,Parangiperja, Reddi Dhoras,Rona,
Rene, Savaras, Kapu Savaras, Maliya Savaras, Khutto
Savaras,Sujalis, Lambadis, Thoti (in Adilabad, Hyderabad,
Karimnagar, Khammam, Mahabubnagar, Medak, Nalgonda,
Nizamabad and Warangal Districts), Valmiki (in the Agency Tracts),
Yanadis, Yerukulas.
According to 2001 Census the tribal population of Andhra Pradesh is
50.24 lakh constitute about 6.6 percent of the total population of the
state. The Scheduled areas extend over 31,485.34 sq. kms., which is
about 11 per cent of total area of the State in 5936 villages of 9
districts, Srikakulam, Vizianagaram, Vishakhapatnam, East Godavari,
West Godavari, Khammam, Warangal, Adilabad and Mahabubnagar.
Out of 50.24 lakh of tribal population, more than 30 lakh are found in
the above 9 districts only (Mohan Rao, 2000) .
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2.4 Chenchus: Origin, Identity and Socio-Cultural Status
Chenchu tribe is one among the 33 groups living in Andhra Pradesh.
They are distributed in the districts of Mahabubnagar, Kurnool,
Guntur, Prakasam, Nalgonda and Ranga Reddy. Chenchus are listed
as Scheduled Tribes in Andhra Pradesh in modified order 1956 of the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes List. There are the primitive
tribes with different and varied explanations about the origin and
derivation of the name Chenchu. Manusmrithi makes a mention of a
tribe Chenchu and treats the same as par with Andhras.
Presumably, they are the same as the Chenchus of today. An
ecological meaning is sought to be attributed to the world 'Chenchu'
by interpreting that a person who lives under chettu (tree) is a
Chenchu. The Chenchus of Amarabad and Mannanur are aware of
this derivation. An old Chenchu of Mannanur narrates a legend of
how the name was derived. This legend is connected with the Lord
Mallikarjuna of Srisaiiam temple. Once there lived a man and his wife
in a small hut in the forest near Srisailam temple.
They were living happily and peacefully except for the sorrow that
they had no children. They worshipped all deities and made sacrifices
in the hope of be getting children but in vain. One day both husband
and wife went for hunting in the forest. While returning they met
Lord Mallikarjuna in the forest and prayed to him to bless them with
a child.
The Lord Mallikarjuna granted their wish on the condition that they
should dedicate their children to him. After nine months the woman
gave birth to a female child and both husband and wife felt very
happy and dedicated the child to Lord Mallikarjuna as desired by him.
When the girl attained the age of three she left her parents and
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started living in the forest all alone, under a tree, eating wild fruits
and leaves. Because she was living under Chettu (tree) she was
called Chenchita. One day while she was roaming in the forest she
came across Lord Mallikarjuna and fell in love with him.
The Lord Mal1ikarjuna was also very much attracted by her and
married her with the consent of his Queen. The descendants of this
girl are called Chenchus meaning the children of a girl who lived
under chettu (tree). But the story is not current among the Chenchus
of Kurnool and Guntur districts. According to another version,
these people were in the habit of eating a kind of rat which is locally
known as 'Chenchu' and the same term was applied to designate the
people.
The explanation to the origin of the term, 'Chenchu' maybe derived
from meaning fire locks. The name may also be a corruption of
'Chenchu' which is suffix meaning 'renowned' or 'celebrated' or
skilled name as in 'Akshara Chenchus' or 'Chara Chenchu' From the
strategic place their home lands occupy, the Chenchus may well
have been chares of the old kings of the South whose one pre-
occupation was the protection of Krishna and Tungabhadra frontiers".
There is an interesting story, which is known among the Chenchus of
Kurnool district about the reason for the dark complexion of
Chenchus.
According to this story Lord Narasimha (Man of Lion god) married a
beautiful damsel 'Chenchu Lakshmi' of his tribe. After some years she
was let down by her Lord because of the adamant stand taken by his
senior queen 'Adi Lakshmi' to desert 'Chenchu Lakshmi'. Having been
left away from her Lord, the heart broken 'Chenchu Lakshmi'
smeared her faces of Chenchu women with the juice of 'bilva' (Aegle
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marmelos) leaves and cursed that all the Chenchu women would be
dark and ugly in future (Haimendorf, 1992).
The Chenchu of all the three areas Mahabubnagar, Kurnool and
Guntur claims that the female deity Bramaramba of Srisailam also
hails from their tribe and Lord Mallikarjuna fell in love with her. It is
said, the cattle belonging to a king called Chandra Gupta of Srisailam
area were looked after by Chenchu herdsmen. There was a black
milch cow among the cattle, which used to disappear into the forest
often and never gave milk at home. After much observation, the
Chenchus found out that their cow was milked to a young man in the
forest, who was later identified as Mallikarjuna.
The people tried to catch him out; he entered into a cave and never
returned. When the efforts of Chenchu males failed, the Chenchu
damsels came forward to catch that young man. In their pursuit, one
beautiful and enchanting damsel succeeded. The young man
immediately fell in love with her and married her as his Second wife,
the first wife being Goddess Parvati. Later when the site emerged as
a holy shrine, the Chenchus were employed as helpers at the
Brahmin priests engaged in conducting religious ceremonies at
Srisailam temple. Even today, four Chenchu helpers are employed at
the shrine. Besides this, particularly the Chenchus of Kurnool district
acquired the right to collect a fee of one anna called metta from each
pilgrim who passed through their abodes in return to the safety
assured and guidance given to the pilgrims by Chenchus in the
Nallamallai forest. During an investigation, most of the Chenchus
revealed that their fore-fathers were not living at a particular place.
They were moving from place to place doing podu agriculture. The
meaning of word in Telugu 'Chenchalatvam' is not stable or
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stationary. Hence, it implies that the name Chenchus emerges from
their way of momentary living, i.e., chenchalatvam.
The Andhra Pradesh Tribes Enquiry Committee was constituted in
year 1961. According to this committee, the Chenchu and the Yanadi
are one and the same. To put it briefly the Chenchu ran down the hill
because of Yanadi. Their food habits, religious beliefs, cultural
approaches, clan characteristics, folk love and to a great extent living
conditions are the same.
2.4.1. Social Conditions
The social conditions of the chenchus were well documented quite
long time ago. They are presented briefly hereunder.
i. Family
Among the Chenchus "family" is the most important social unit and it
influences the individual in every phase of life and is more powerful
than the clan or gotra. The nuclear family with husband, wife and
their unmarried children is predominant among them. After marriage
the couple begins to stay in a separate house built by them. They are
neo-local but patripotestral. Sometimes the husband may migrate to
his wife's village; even where they invariably stay in a separate
house. The following table presents according to the gotras of
chenchu’s of various districts.
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Table 2.2 : Chenchu Gotras in Different Districts
Sno Name of District Gotras found
I Mahabubnagar
Mandla, Thokala, Nimmala,
Chingurlla, Nallapothula,
Eravala, Pulicherla, Vdutala,
Dasari, Mayillu, Kotraju, Balmuri,
Kannimunne, Marripalle.
II Kurnool
Arthi, Balmuri, Bhumani,
Chigurla, Dasari, Garaboyana,
Gulla, Kudumala, Mandla,
Pulicherla, Topi, Udutaluri.
III Guntur/Prakasham
Vdutala, Jollollu, Gaddamu,
Chijurla, Chavadi
Kudumula, Mandla, Nallapothula,
Pittollu, Boajjollu, Puicherla,
Dasari,
Source: Census of India, 1961.
Kinship system among the Chenchus is classificatory and bilateral.
The kins of both mother's and father's side have important social and
ritual rules to play, particularly during the social ceremonies like child
birth, marriage and death. Sometimes, affinal kins, like sister's
husband have also some part to play during the social and economic
activity.
ii. Chenchu marriage pattern
There are two types of marriages existing among the Chenchus,
marriage by negotiation, locally known as 'pelli', and marriage by
elopement termed as 'raji' (marriage by love). Generally, marriages
within the clan or gotra are not allowed. Cross-cousin marriage is in
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vogue. There is no taboo in choosing a partner within the village;
however, young people are willing to marry within their own village
and they are rather inclined to choose their partners from other
villages.
Customarily there is a strict taboo for marrying younger or older
brother's widow. Chenchu widow generally married the brother of her
deceased husband. It is also stated that this custom might have been
borrowed from the Lambada tribes. When a boy reaches adolescence
parents will be on the lookout for a suitable partner.
If they come across any suitable girl, they visit the girl’s village. If
the father gives his daughter to another man against his promise, his
act is considered as 'thappu' (offence) and is liable to pay
compensation to the promised party.
Generally, consent of the boy is taken and much weight is given to
the opinion of the boy. As a matter of fact, the boy himself chooses is
partner and brings pressure on his parents to celebrate the marriage.
Marriage takes place at the residence of the bride. An auspicious day
is fixed by elders and this day a 'talibottu' (marriage locket) tied
around the neck of bride while raising the sounds of Thappet (a kind
of drum).
iii. Divorce
Both men and women can freely initiate the divorce, when the terms
of relationship is not cordial between couple and the woman fails to
adjust with these strained relations. 'Kula Pachayati' (tribal elders)
decides the divorce. The aggrieved husband informs the tribal elders
of his village about the case and presents the facts over a sumptuous
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iv. Dinner and Liquor
In the end, the new partners of woman has to pay the compensation
of fixed by the tribal elders and meet all the expenses spend on food
and liquor. The woman has to return all the ornaments that are
presented by her former husband. The children at the breast are
allowed to be taken along with her only to be returned after they
attain their maturity.
v. Inheritance
Among the Chenchu there is some difference between what they say
and what they actually do regarding bequeathing their property to
their heirs. For instance they say that the property would be
inherited by the eldest son; but in fact it is enjoyed by all the male
children of the deceased, though the eldest son has a largest share.
If a woman dies the ornaments originally received from her parents
are distributed among the daughters. If there are no daughters, sons
take the ornaments. In case of cattle, the eldest son gets an
additional share. The daughters may get one or two goats or sheep
each, depending on the generosity of their brothers. If a man or
woman dies childless, the property is handed over to the nearest
blood relatives in the father's line; it, however, goes to the people in
the mother's line; if the deceased had been residing with his
mother's kin.
vi. Living Conditions
As Chenchus are at pre-agricultural stage of economy, their
settlements are usually found in the forest on which they heavily
depend. They have symbolic relationship with forests and subsist
largely on flora and fauna available in the forests. Each settlement of
Chenchus may consist of three to thirty huts in the forests depending
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on the availability of forest resources for livelihood. Bigger
settlements with about fifty houses are also found where they have
taken to settled cultivation.
It can be stated that wherever Chenchus are largely food gatherers,
hunters, their settlements are spare and wherever traditional
occupation was diversified and settled agriculture is adopted their
settlements are large. The settlements at pilgrim tourist centers are
also large. Dwellings Chenchus traditionally live in conical and oblong
huts. The hut is small and compact. It is erected by the owners with
the assistance of their kith and kin.
The required materials for raising the huts are secured freely from
the forests. They do not observe any formality regarding the
selection of a site for construction of the house. After selecting the
site, they mark off a fairly elevated circular area about 10 to 12 feet
in diameter and then erect on the same a central pole. Among the
periphery of the four feet in height.
These side posts are then connected with the central people by
bamboo pieces. Generally the distance between one hut and another
hut is more than 50 years. The grouping of huts is invariably based
on kinship pattern. During nights, the Chenchus share their dwelling
with their livestock (goats, sheep, poultry, etc).
The houses are rendered unhygienic due to this practice. Several
persons especially children suffer from scabies and other skin
diseases. Malnutrition related diseases are very common among
Chenchu children. The most common sign observed were
enlargement of liver, angular stomatitis, ophthalmic diseases, hair
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discoloration, moon face and dental cavies, iron deficiency diseases
are also noticed (Haimendorf, 1992).
Protein calorie malnutrition is very conspicuous in all the age groups.
Vitamin a deficiency signs such as; night blindness, photophobia,
bitot spots, corned xerasis, etc. are frequently noticed. In addition to
nutrition deficiency diseases, high prevalence rates of matters may
be responsible for enlarged liver and spleen. A massive nutrition
programme for pregnant and lactating mothers along with 0-6 age
group children must receive the highest priority.
2.5 Tribal Development: A Retrospective Scenario
The Indian sub-continent inhabited by innumerable tribal
communities. Since they had been living in almost complete isolation
for centuries, they confront the administrator with problems which
are not only peculiar but also immense. It is disconcerting to know
that at the Government level, both in the States and at the Centre,
until recently only half-hearted attempts were made to tackle these
problems. To acquire a deeper understanding of the problems these
tribal communities, one will have to derive into tribal history since
their present problems are manifestation of their past. It would
therefore, be not only fitness of things but as a backdrop to the
present studies some aspects of the history of tribes in India as
dimension of Indian civilization.
2.5.1.The Ancient Period
Different views have been expressed regarding the aboriginality of
the Indian Tribes. Some scholars consider the tribals to be the pre-
Aryan inhabitants of India. They felt that the tribals are the remnants
48
of the primitive communities which have so far escaped absorption
and have preserved in a modified but still distinguishable form, their
independent existence.
Others consider the Austro- Asiatis as outsiders like the Indo-Aryans.
They think that the Negritos were the earliest inhabitants of India but
they did not leave any trace here. The Proto- Australoids who
followed them, therefore, may be considered to be the true
aborigines. Thereafter came the Austro- Asiatic people. Yet another
school suggested that pre- Dravidians are the original inhabitants of
the country.
Then came the Proto-Austroloids. And these people were followed by
the Mangoloids which include the 'Nagas', the 'Bodos', etc., of the
north-eastern Himalayan region. According to Guha's classification all
the tribes of Indian are covered fewer than three types, viz., the
Negritos, the Pro-Austroloids and the Mongoloids.
If the tribes are not aborigines of the exact area they now occupy,
they are the autochthones of India and to that extent they may be
called the aborigines.
2.5.2. The British Period
The modern period starts with the advent of the British rule in the
country. It was with the entry of the missionaries into these areas
that the administration started paying some attention to the
problems of the tribals. But this contact was quite superficial and
made them come to some equally superficial conclusions, the most
important of which was to isolate these people from the rest of their
countrymen and keep aloof the Tribal areas from the purview of the
normal administration. Far from being of immediate benefits to the
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primitive tribe, the establishment of the British rule in India did most
of them more harm than good.
The early period of the British Administration was detrimental to the
economic position of the tribes through ignorance and neglect of
their rights and customs. The British policy of isolating the tribes
resulted in their exploitation. Landlords, money-lenders and
contractors exploited the tribals to the maximum. The programme of
the conservation of forests resulted in progressive encroachment on
the rights enjoyed by the tribals with regard to the exploitation of
minor forest produce.
The British had no control over the exploitation of minor forest
produce. The British had no control over the landlords in the
management of their private forests which in turn intensified the
suspicion in the tribal mind. The encroachments on the tribal rights in
forests resulted in sporadic retaliations which eventually led to a
disruption discontent of the tribal economy and consequently to in an
attempt to safeguard them from the possible consequences of the
incursions of the non-tribals, the tribals were cut off from the main
currents of India's social and economic life.
What the tribal people needed most was not isolation but planned
contact on the basis of a positive policy of economic progress. The
Government of India Act, 1919, continued the provision of
administering the tribal areas separately from the rest of the
provinces. Under Section 52-A (2) of this Act, they were removed
from the purview of the legislatures but the limits of exclusion
differed in extent and degree. Thus, the two categories of "wholly
Excluded Areas" and "Areas of Modified Exclusion" came into
existence.
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The British system of law and administration did nothing to bolster
and much to damage the social structure of these tribes and
weakened the authority of the social heads or Panchayats and the
respect they formerly commanded. The tribal people were not
adequately represented in the Legislatures and on local bodies. There
were only 24 tribal representatives in the Provincial Legislative
Assemblies under the Government of India Act, 1935, against a total
of 1,533 members.
In the Central Provinces, where the tribals numbered as much as 20
per cent of the population, only one seat was reserved for them in
the Legislative Assembly. Madras and Bombay also had only one seat
each. In Bihar there were seven. In the Central Assembly, out of the
total number of 250 seats, not a single seat was reserved for the
tribals. Although nothing much is known about the early history of
this dominantly Tribal area, it is believed to have constituted a part
of the Dandakaranya drugging the Epic period (Dube, 1977).
In the Maharashtra this fact has been referred to as "Mahakoshal" or
"Dakhshin Koshal". This distinguished it from "Uttar Koshal" which
roughly corresponded to Oudh in the north of the Ghaghra River. It is
not definitely known why this region acquired its present name. It
might be because it was under the suzerainty of the Chedi kings. But
the popular belief is that the area is known as Chattisgarh because of
the existence of thirty six forts, eighteen on either side of the river
Sheonath. Geographically, the Chhattisgarh region is bound by the
Maikal range in Nagpur division on the west and a series of hillocks
and forests on the other three sides.
51
2.5.3. The Constitutional Provisions
Devising suitable ways and means to protect the weaker sections of
the society from all kinds of exploitations was the marathon task
faced by the framers of Indian Constitution. They were confronted
with the problem of ensuring balanced development to these
communities so that they could take their legitimate place in the
general life of the country without endangering their own way of life.
Although many provisions in the Constitution apply to all the citizens,
they acquire a special significance in the case of the tribal
communities and other backward classes since they suffer from
many disabilities. Besides, several Articles are exclusively intended
for the betterment and protection of these segments of the society.
The preamble of the Constitution guarantees social, economic and
political justice; equality of status and opportunity, liberty of thought,
express, belief, faith and worship.
It strives to promote fraternity among masses in order to ensure the
dignity of the individual along with the unity of the country. Part III
of the Constitution deals with the fundamental Right and guarantees
to all the citizens’ equality before law on the grounds of religion,
race, caste, sex or place of birth (Article 15).
This is significant in the tribal context since these communities have
been discriminated against on almost all these grounds in the past.
Equality of opportunity in the matter of employment with the
Government has been ensured under Article 16, while Article 17
abolishes untouchability. Much personal freedom life that of speech,
expression, residence, etc., have been guaranteed under Article 19.
While Article 25 grants the right of freedom of religion, Article 29
protects the cultural and educational rights of the minorities of whom
the tribal communities from a very important part.
52
It is however, Part IV, Article 46, which embodies the resurgent
India's new Policy towards the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes. "The State shall promote with special care education and
economic interest of the weaker sections of the people, and in
particular, of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and shall
protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation."
Part VI, Article 164, makes the provision for the appointment of a
separate Minister for Tribal Welfare in the states of Madhya Pradesh,
Bihar and Orissa. Part X, Article 244, empowers the President of
India to declare any area, where there is a substantial population of
the tribal, as a Scheduled Area under the Fifth Schedule. The same
provision has been made of the tribes of Assam under the Sixth
Schedule. Under the Fifth Schedule the executive powers of a state
extends to the Scheduled Areas, but the -0vernor is authorized to
modify the State and the Central laws for their peace and good
Government". In all the States having such Scheduled Areas, a Tribal
Advisory Council has to be set up and \he Governor is expected to
submit periodical reports to the President of India.
Part XII, Article 275, provides for special central assistance by the
Union Government to the States for promoting welfare of the
Scheduled Tribes. "These shall be paid out of the consolidated fund
of India as grants-in-aid of the revenue of a state such capital and
recurring sums as may necessary to enable that state to meet the
costs of such schemes of developments as may be undertaken by the
State with the approval of Government of India for the purpose of
promoting the welfare of Scheduled Tribes in that state or raising the
level of administration of the Scheduled Areas therein to that of the
administration of the rest of that State'.
53
Tribal Areas have also been kept outside the purview of the Finance
Commission since it was felt that the Constitutional provisions were
so wide in scope that any scheme considered necessary for the
development of the Tribal Communities was entitled for automatic
financial sanction once it was approved.
Part XVI, Articles 330, 332 and 334 provide for the reservation of
seats for the Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha, and in the State
Legislatures for a certain period. Reservation in the Government
services has been provided under Article 335. Article 338, makes the
provision of the appointment of a special officer designated as
Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes by the
President of India.
Article 339 lays down that "the executive power of the Union extends
to the giving of directions to a State as to the drawing up and
execution of the schemes specified in the directions to be essential
for the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes in the State."
The President of India is empowered under Article 340 to appoint a
Commission to investigate the conditions of the backward classes
and suggest suitable measures. The commission envisaged by this
Article submitted its report in 1961. It made some useful
recommendations pertaining to the protection of the tribals’ interests
in land and forest, prevention of encroachment on cultivable land
belonging to the tribes; checking of the exploitation of the tribal by
the money-lenders, and undertaking development measures to
improve the lots of the tribals living in the non-scheduled areas.
It also recommended that more funds should be made available for
the welfare schemes of the Scheduled Tribes. Under Article 341 and
342 the President is to specify by the public notification, after
54
consultation with the Governor or the Rajpramukh of a State, the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes of that State. Accordingly, in
1950-51 lists of such Scheduled Tribes were notified by the President
and are contained in the Schedules appended to the following orders:
1. The Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) Order, 1950.
2. The Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) (Part C) States) Order,
1951.
3. The Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) (Andamon and Nicobar
Islands) Order, 1959.
4. The Constitution (Dadra and Najer Haveli) (Scheduled Tribes)
Order, 1962.
5. The Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) (UP) Order 1967.
6. The Constitution (Goa, Daman and diu) (Scheduled Tribes)
Order 1968.
Under Constitution provisions the above orders once issued could be
varied only by a law of Parliament. The need for such variation arose
first when Andhra Pradesh created in 1953 and thereafter on the
creation of Himachal Pradesh in 1954. Certain recommendations
were later made by Backward Classes Commission appointed by the
Government of India in 1953 under the Chairmanship of Kaka
Kalelkar, where upon these orders were again revised by the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Order (Amendment) Act,
1956 (Gisbert, 1978).
On the reorganization of States by the States Reorganization Act,
1956 and on the enactment of the Bihar and West Bengal (Transfer
of Territories) Act, 1956, the Orders were further modified by the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Lists (Modification) Order,
1956. These were revised once again on the creation of Maharashtra
and Gujarat by the Bombay reorganization Act 1960.
55
The Punjab reorganization Act, 1966 also resulted in the transfer of
lists of the Scheduled Tribes from the Punjab to Himachal Pradesh.
Thus, the Constitutional safeguards provide a broad framework, but
details of a policy of reconstruction might vary from State to State
since each of them has its own typical problems arising from very
different causes.
The provisions in the Constitution were the first positive effort to
bring the tribal communities in the mainstream of the national life
with adequate safeguards. Although the basic framework of the
Constitution cannot be considered inadequate, it appears that the
broader frame envisaged therein has remained largely unused, some
of the Constitutional safeguards, Protective legislation and
enforcement machinery.
In pursuance of Directive Principles of State Policy as enshrined in
Article 46 of the Constitution, the Government of Andhra Pradesh in
exercise of the powers under para-5(2) of the Fifth Schedule of the
Constitution made the following Protective Regulation.
AP Scheduled Areas Land Transfer Regulation, 1959. AP Scheduled
Areas Money Lenders Regulation, 1960. AP Scheduled Tribes Debt
Relief Regulation, 1960. AP Scheduled Tribes Debt Relief Regulation,
1970.
As land constitutes the principal sources of livelihood to a vast
majority of tribals in the State, the Andhra Pradesh Scheduled Areas
Land Transfer Regulation, 1959 was made to safeguard the interests
of tribals in land in the Scheduled Areas of the State. The Regulation
has been amended by the Amending Regulation of 1970, 1971 and
1978 in order to remove the lacunae and to render its
implementation more effective.
56
Special Deputy Collectors (Tribal Welfare) posts have been created at
Elwinpeta in Vizianagaram district (whose jurisdiction extends over
Scheduled Areas of Vizianagaram and Srikakulam districts), Paderu
in Viashkapatnam district, Rampa chodavaram in East Godavari
district, K.P. Puram in West Godavari district and Utnoor in Adilabad
district.
The Revenue Divisional Officer, Nagar Kurnool in Mahabubnagar
district is designated as Agency Divisional office for implementation
of this regulation in the Scheduled Areas of Mahabubnagar District.
Besides these Special Deputy Collectors (Tribal Welfare), the Agency
Divisional Officers of the Agency Revenue Division concerned
exercise concurrent jurisdiction to implement this Regulation.
Andhra Pradesh Scheduled Areas Money Lenders Regulation 1960
has been promulgated to regulate various money-lending in the
Scheduled Areas and A.P. Scheduled Tribes Debt Relief Regulation,
1960 and 1970 have been made to provide relief from the
outstanding debts to the members of Scheduled Tribes in Scheduled
Areas. However, there is no special staff sanctioned exclusively for
the implementation of these regulations. The Agency Divisional
officer and other Revenue Officers are authorized to enforce the
provisions of these regulations.
2.6. Tribal Development: A Prospective Scenario
Development is usually conceived as an aspect of change that is
desirable, broadly predicted or planned and administer or at least
influenced by government action. Thus the concept of development
consists of an aspect of change, a plane or prediction and
involvement of the government for the achievement of that planned
or predicted goal.
57
The term development is also used for the process of allowing and
encouraging people to meet their own aspirations. It, therefore
must relate to transforming the entire society enmeshing together
it’s economic, social, political and administrative aspects on all round
balance up word change. So development is not merely an economic
phenomenon rather a social phenomenon encompassing all aspect of
human life.
In social sciences development denotes the advancement of a society
through a progressive stage. Bringing out a society from latent or
elementary condition will be regarded as development it is found in
various fields with different aims. Sometimes it is used to connote a
process, whereas sometimes the products of process. It is always
associated total process of society.
During the pre-independence period the Government has mainly
concentrated on the implementation of protective measures to
prevent exploitation of tribal from outsiders, i.e., non-tribes, while
implementing development programmes on a very normal scale. A
systematic effort for developing tribes however was first attempted
with the inception of First Five year Plan.
The First Five Year Plan was aimed at developing the tribals’ natural
resources and to evolve the productive economic life so that they will
reap the fruits of their own labour and also equip them to protect
themselves against the exploitation from outside agencies. While
continuing this basic policy of development the Second Five year Plan
laid emphasis on understanding the tribal culture and their traditions
and appreciation of socio-economic and psychological milieu and give
respect to these factors while formulating and implementing the
development problems. An integrated approach was initiated with the
58
establishment of four multi-purpose projects in the tribal area of the
State exclusively for the benefit of Scheduled Tribes.
The developmental efforts have been expanded to cover new areas
of tribal concentration. Encouraged by the promising results of the
Integrated Project approach and also the recommendations of the
various committees and commissions, the four multipurpose projects
have been converted into TO blocks and as many as twenty new TD
Blocks have been started in the tribal areas of the State.
While keeping up the tempo of development in the successive Plan
periods, specific schemes have been evolved and put on ground to
tackle the identified problems of the tribals in sensitive areas. The
tribals development efforts have been intensified and agricultural and
allied sectors oriented schemes have been implemented. Certain
special programmes for women and children have also been put on
ground and enforcement of protective legislation has been
streamlined for their strict enforcement.
During the Fifth Five year Plan in consonance with the National Policy
on Tribal Development and to alleviate poverty among tribals specific
programmes have been evolved to ensure the flow of benefits to the
backward areas and backward communities among tribals. With this
end in view, Area Development programmes have been evolved
while at the same time with the focus on the development of
individual households and target groups i.e., tribes community.
Further, it was also decided to improve major thrust to develop the
tribal area with focus on tribal community development in the areas
of tribal concentration. In pursuance of this policy and strategy,
elimination of exploitation in all forms, acceleration of place of
59
development, building up the inner strength of the people and
improving their organizational capabilities has been set up as main
tasks of tribal development in the Fifth Five year Plan. The strategy
has paved the way for developing tribal sub-plan concept,
establishing ITDAs during the Fifth Five year Plan (Behera, 1997).
The long-term objectives of the sub-plan are to narrow the gap in the
levels of development of tribal and tribal areas and to improve the
quality of life of the tribal community. The main features of new
approach are identification of special needs of the tribals, ensuring
major thrust of development from general sectors and resource
mobilization, identification of special problems of the areas and
communities and evolving programmes based on the resource
endowment and bridge the gap in the levels of development between
the tribals and non-tribal, integrated approach as against sectorial
approach etc.
For achieving this goal major thrust of development is envisaged
from State Plan which is to be supplemented by special central
assistance related by Ministry of Welfare, Government of India. The
programmes have been formulated in the areas of tribal
concentration based on the total needs, problems and resources. As
a result of these approach areas of tribal concentration has been
identified in Mahabubnagar district by including all scheduled areas
and all tribal development block areas and all villages of tribal
concentration to the scheduled areas and Tribal development Block
areas.
Project areas thus, in all villages have covered by the Integrated
Tribal Development Project was formulated and an agency was
establishment during March 1975 for implementing these
60
programmes and to achieve the balanced growth. This agency was
registered under Societies Act, with the adoption of new approach
Tribal Development Programmes gained momentum.
Various sectorial programmes are formulated and integrated into the
perspective plan. For implementing these programmes a Project
Officer with supporting staff - sectorial officers and ministerial staff
was appointed. Among other things are organizations, financial,
programme areas Integration has been aimed at. The project officer
is entrusted with the responsibility of co-ordination, supervision, of
implementation of various sectorial programmes and to look after
day to day administration of the project.
A Governing Body has been also constituted with the District
Collector as its Chairman and project officer as member-secretary,
sectorial officers are: Mandal Development Officers, elected
representatives of Tribal M.L.A.s and M.Ps. As its members to review
periodically and to advise the project authority in programme
planning and implementation and to ensure the participation of non-
official members from among the Schedule Tribes in progress,
planning and reviewing.
The Governing Body is also vested with administrative and financial
powers for implementing the schemes. Besides these, the
performance of the ITDA is being reviewed periodically by the
Government through a committee headed by Secretary to
Government and Commissioner for Tribal Welfare. The project officer
and the Chairman of the ITDA are empowered to sanction schemes
up to one lakh and two lakh rupees respectively.
The personnel are also being appointed on selective basis. The
screening committee is also constituted to review the performance of
61
the officials and to do away with the unsuitable staff members. For
implementing various sectorial programmes to achieve the objectives
set out in the plan a sum of Rs. 1488.86 lakh was spent during the
Five year period i.e., 1975-1980 in the sub-plan area on various
sectorial programmes for the benefit of tribals. As a result of this
investment the project area recorded some growth.
During VI Five Year Plan, the development programmes have been
oriented in consonance with the guidelines issued by the Prime
Minister of India to all the Chief Ministers. Within the broad frame
work the programmes are modified to cater to the special needs of
the State. During this Plan period it was decided to implement the TD
programmes through ITDAs, for areas of tribal concentration,
primitive and isolated groups and through Modified Area
Development Approach (MADA) pockets to cover the small and
compact areas of tribals outside the sub-plan area.
The special feature of the VI plan was to identify the families living
below poverty line and to evolve programmes to help them to cross
over the poverty line. The entire funds provided under special
centres assistance were earmarked for taking up programmes under
anti-poverty line programmes. It was also attempted to stream line
the monitoring and reporting system. It was aimed at strict
enforcement of protective legislation.
A substantial increase was made in the financial allocations during
the Sixth Five year Plan. Consequently, an amount of RS.333.35 lakh
was released and an amount of RS.416.35 lakh was spent during the
Sixth Plan period under Special Central Assistance. The ITDA has
been the operational unit for development programme for Scheduled
Tribes in the Sub-plan since 1975.
62
The periodical assessment of the impact of development programmes
on the socio-economic life of tribals living in sub-plan areas covered
by ITDAs is essential not only to identify the gaps so that necessary
corrective measures could be taken to achieve the targets but also to
measure the extent which the objectives have been achieved and
also to identify the constraints and bottlenecks encountered during
the course of programme implementation.
Adequate Food, Shelter, Medical, services and basic education are
the basic needs that no society can be disallowed under any
situation. Forests always had been the stable source of additional
food as well as basic food, during period out of crop seasons. Even
farming becomes less damaging if forest-based products are freely
available to forest dwellers as un obstructed sources of food, the
collection of which, in no way, causes any damage to forest wealth.
The rights of tribals in forest and forest produces have been radically
narrowed down and in several occasions liable to attract the court’s
attention with the inception of new forest policy after the
nationalization of forest. The migration of STs from forest village to
revenue villages to revenue villages of plain areas outside the forest
have brought them in the focus of those anti-social people, who are
interested to grab the tribal lands by hooker crook (Jain, 2005).
2.6.1. Objectives of ITDA
The f o l l ow i ng a r e t he ob j ec t i v e s o f I TD A
1. To imbibe useful knowledge among tribals in the improved
method of agriculture, veterinary, industries, forest products,
all round tribal development items on the following ways and
means.
2. To identify the tribal and their problems in its area.
63
3. To prepare projects and initiation of necessary socio- economic
surveys.
4. To organize structure and strengthening of administration.
5. To prepare land records.
6. District redemption schemes.
7. Preliminary work on plantation schemes.
8. Execution of minor irrigation schemes
9. To draw up model plans for investment and production
activities to be undertaken by the tribals for solving their
problems.
10. To execute these plans for the benefit of the tribal either
directly or through other in coordination with the existing
agencies engaged in this direction in the field, whether
private, public or co-operative, such as the Zilla-Parishad, the
Agro-Industries Corporation, Co-operative Banks, Commercial
Banks, Departments of State and Central Governments, etc.
11. To review the Progress of the execution of these activities as
well as the effectiveness of the benefits directed towards the
tribals.
12 . To a t t a i n t he above ma i n ob j e c t i v e s , t he
agency may Take steps to ensure adequate credit to the
tribals by providing grants to the credit institutions operating
in the area to cover any banking risks that they may be
exposed to in financing tribals and by helping them to build up
special funds for this purpose.
13 . To provide grants/subsidies to such credit institutions for
strengthen the managerial and supervisory staff.
14 . To give such assistance to tribals may be necessary for
furthering plans and schemes undertaken or society. Including
grants as the purpose of the supported by the Government.
64
15. To organize and arrange for providing all facilities to the
tribals. Power tillers, rigs, boring equipment, etc. to be let out
to tribals on hire.
16. To render assistance for the development of educational,
agricultural, animal husbandry (including poultry, sheep or
goat rearing, piggery and dairy) development programmes for
the benefit of tribals.
17. To render assistance for the development of scouting,
agricultural talents, sports-games, etc. among tribals.
18. To undertake directly or through other work programmes such
as irrigation, land development, land reclamation, leveling,
bonding, lining, soil conservation, etc. as may be deemed
necessary/beneficial to the tribals.
19. To organize, processing and marketing activities of the
agricultural, livestock, dairy, poultry, sheep and goat rearing,
piggery, forest production and ancillary produce of tribals.
20. To assist, strengthen the marketing and processing society’s
organizations and individuals.
21. To draw, with the promising negotiable endorse, discount and
negotiate of State and Central and other of exchange, cheques
or other accept, make Governments notes, bills, instruments.
22. To invest societies from time and from investment the funds
or the money entrusted in the upon such scrutiny or in such
manner as may to time be determined, by the Governing body
time to time sell or transport such.
65
23. To purchase, taken and lease, accept as gift, construct or
otherwise acquire, any loan of property whether suitable
which may be necessary or useful to the society.
24. To employ directly or indirectly by grants, by other
institutions, persons to further the programmes to be
undertaken/supported by the society.
25. To set up or establish any special service such as educational
institutions, hostels, ashram schools, training
institutions/centers, dispensaries, laboratory or processing
plants, etc. in further of the socioeconomic interests of the
tribals.
26. To sell, lease, exchange and otherwise transfer of any
portion of the property of the society.
27. To initiate necessary action and all other such things as may
be considered by the society and may be incidental or to the
attainment of these objectives.
2.6.2. Functions and powers of the project officers of ITDA
1. Identification and demarcation of areas of tribal concentration.
2. Identification of primitive pockets for special attention for
development under the package programme.
3. Recognition of more backward communities.
4. Formulation of tribal sub-plan and preparation of Integrated
Tribal Development Project Report.
5. To serve as link between the local development officers and the
higher authorities.
6. To accord financial sanctions for schemes within his powers.
66
7. To co-ordinate and supervise all developmental activities in the
sub-plan areas.
8. To prepare periodic progress reports of schemes.
Implementation of Protective Legislations.
9. To serve as member-secretary of the Advisory Committees on
Tribal Development.
2.6.3. Staffing pattern of ITDA
The following is the staff pattern of ITDA:
Project officer, Asst. Project officer, Office Manager, Asst. Acc.Officer,
Superintendent, Sr. Assistant-I, Sr. Accountant, Jr. Accountant,
Clerk-cum-typist, Steno typist, Jr.Assistant, Attenders and Drivers.
2.6.4. Background of the ITDA at Sunni Penta, Srisailam
Andhra Pradesh State is the traditional home of 33 recognized tribal
groups who are at different stages of socio-economic development.
Of 33 Scheduled Tribes of Andhra Pradesh, eight Tribal groups have
been recognized as Primitive Tribal Groups by Government of India.
The extremely backward tribal groups who are identified as Primitive
Tribal Groups are at the pre-agricultural stage of economy, low level
of literacy and largely subsisting on food gathering and hunting.
The identification of some tribal groups as P.T.Gs Government of
India was done in three different periods for the purpose of
extending additional Special Central Assistance to implement special
schemes. "This compensatory preference" is essential to bring the
isolated and Primitive Groups on par with other advanced groups.
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The Chenchu tribe was recognized as Primitive Tribal Group in the
year 1975. These Chenchus mainly inhabit the forest areas of
Mahabubnagar, Prakasham, districts. Kurnool, Guntur, Nalgonda and
Ranga Reddy.
The Kolams of Adilabad district and Konda Reddis of East Godavari,
West Godavari and Khammam districts were recognised as PTGs in
the year 1980 and Konda Savaras, Gadabes, Khonds, Purjas, etc.
and Thotis of Adilabad district in the year 1983. Among the 282689
of primitive tribal groups in A.P. the Chenchus are 25346 according
to 1981 Census.
The Chenchus are predominantly found living in the districts of
Mahabubnagar, Prakasham, Krunool and Guntur districts; Whereas
their population in Nalgonda and Ranga Reddy district is less. But the
Chenchus are also found living in other districts of the State in
negligible number. The Chenchu, a food gathering tribe is pre-
dominantly living in Nallamallai hills. The Nallamallai hills which are a
part of Eastern Ghats are spread over Kurnool, Prakasham and
Mahabubnagar districts. The Nallamallai hills and adjoining
Yerramalai hills which belong to Archeau age are the traditional
habitat of Chenchus.
The Nallamallai of Mahabubnagar, Kurnool and Prakasham districts
are densely forested with steep valleys, high hillocks, flat topped
mountains with luxuriant vegetarian whereas the forest in Guntur
district became thin with small hillocks. The India's most ancient
river Krishnaveni divides the forests of Mahabubnagar from those of
Kurnool, Prakasham and Guntur district. The river Krishna carved it,
was through the folds of Nallamallai hill ranges in the heart of Andhra
Pradesh State. The valleys and gorges, reefs and ridges near the
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waterfalls and cascading a variety of flora and fauna, sava as well as
abundant is flourishing with Tiger at its apex.
2.6.4.1 Historical and cultural heritage
Srisailam is the abode of Lord Mallikarjuna, one of the 12
Jyothirlingas and his consort Bhramaramba, one of the 18 Shakthi
Peethas (Seats) in the country. The sacred river Krishna surrounds
the "Sri Parvatha" and is referred to as 'Pathala Ganga' here.
These areas were successively ruled from 2nd Century A.D. by the
Andhra Sathavahanas, Ikshawaka Kings and the Nizam. Chatrapathi
Sivaji was said to be blessed with the sword by Goddess
Bharamaramba. Adishankara, the great Hindu Saint, Philosopher of
5th Century A.D. worshipped the Lord here. Acharya Nagarjuna, the
famous Budhist Scholar, Saint of 2nd Century A.D. lived at Vijayapuri
presently called as Nagarjunasagar.
The Archaeological Museum and ruins of the world famous Budhist
University are worth seeing. The two modern temples of Srisailam
Hydro Electric Project and Nagarjunasagar Dam and its reservoirs fall
within the Tiger Reserve. The beautiful water falls at Ethipothala
(Near Nagarjunasagar) and Loddi Mallikarjuna, Uma Mahaswaram,
Salleswaram in Amarbad plateau of Mahabubnagar District are
exhilarating.
This Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve is a jewel in the crown
of the country. Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Sanctuary (Rajiv Gandhi
Wild Life Sanctuary) Nagasree National Bank Park The sanctuary was
established in the year 1983 which is spread over in 6 districts of this
I.T.D.A., namely, Mahabubnagar, Prakasham, Kurnool, Guntur,
Nalgonda and Ranga Reddy District.
69
There are 24 Chenchu gudems in the Core area of Mahabubnagar,
Prakasham and Guntur districts and 95 Chenchu gudems in the non-
core area covering the districts of Mahabubnagar, Prakasham,
Kurnool, Guntur, Nalgonda and Ranga Reddy district. Some of the
Chenchu gudems of Mahabubnagar, Prakasham, Kurnool and Guntur
districts are found in the core area of Tiger Reserve.
There are 124 villages and 335 gudems in study area. Out of these,
24 are sanctuary areas lying in the core area of Tiger project. While
there are Schedule villages/gudems in the sanctuary area of
Mahabubnagar district. There are 24 villages in the core are whereas
95 villages are lying in the buffer zone spread over in Mahabubnagar,
Prakasham, Kurnool, Guntur,Nalgonda District and Ranga Reddy
district.
2.6.4.2.Establishment of I.T.D.A. Srisailam, Sunnipenta for
P.T.G. (Chenchus)
Keeping in view the extreme backwardness, pre-agricultural stage of
economy and low level of literacy of Chenchus, the I.T.D.A. for
Primitive Tribal Groups (Chenchu) was established during 1975-76
for their all-round development with its headquarters at Hyderabad.
This I.T.D.A. was registered under Societies Registration Act., 1969.
The Director of Tribal Welfare is the Ex-officio Chairman of the
Project. The head-quarters of the ITDA were shifted from Hyderabad
to Srisailam on 1st August 1988.
Jurisdiction of ITDA.
The ITDA for P.T.G. (Chenchu) was started function with its head-
quarters at Srisailam Dam East (Sunnipenta), Kurnool District of
Andhra Pradesh from August 1, 1988 exclusively for the socio-
economic development of Chenchu predominantly inhabiting
70
Nallamallai Hills. Srisailam is centrally located for the entire Chenchu
region of Nallamallai hills extending over nearly 3500 sq. Kms.
According to 2001 census. The total chenchu population in A.P is
41787. The jurisdiction of the ITDA extends over six (6) districts
namely, Mahabubnagar, Prakasham, Guntur, Kurnool, Nalgonda and
Ranga Reddy. Majority of chenchus are living under these ITDA. The
chenchus population in Mahabubnagar district is 10406. The Chenchu
population of Ranga Reddy district is less, and the sub-collector,
Vikarabad of Ranga Reddy district is designated as Assistant project
Officer for the Chenchu Development.
A considerable development effort has been directed towards the
Chenchus in recent years. The programs have made significant
progress in addressing the environmental problems of the area and
securing major changes in Chenchus. These programs were designed
to assist tribal Households engaged in shifting cultivation to improve
household food security through the development of the rain-fed
agriculture and the protection of environmentally fragile areas. The
stress on community based activities and the development of self-
reliant communities and strong and sustainable village institutions
has been emphasized in all these programs.
Evidences show that these programs have brought about significant
changes in tribal development. Since development emphasis has
changed from one of merely increasing employment opportunities for
tribals by way of labor input programs, executed and monitoring and
empowering them as partners with a stake in improvement of natural
resource base of their economy. Communities have also responded
positively while demonstrating that with suitable support Village
Development Committees (V.D.C) have become actively involved in
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planning implementation, and participating for construction of
irrigation and soil conservation works.
Although the program made considerable efforts to develop
participatory approach, due to lack of conceptual clarity and training
the concept of community participation has been evenly understood.
The focus on the mobilization of community groups to undertake
specific infrastructure works has not been set to the overall context
of village institution building. A considerable transformation in
approach to tribal development falls short of a process which leads
towards the establishment of sustainable village institutions.
The participatory approach needs to be better understood and
implemented. This requires greater emphasis on the training of staff
for its approach, its meaning and implications. The economic and
social conditions in the tribal areas, in spite of adequate resource,
endowments are far from the satisfactory compared to other similarly
endowed areas.
Therefore, up gradation of productive capabilities in such areas along
with the protection of the ecology is of paramount importance to
narrow down the gap between the backward tribal areas and the
developed areas to realize sustainable growth and development and
the creation of adequate employment opportunities. To achieve this,
state intervention through protective and preventive measures to
develop dry land agriculture, become absolutely necessary. Besides
the participation of NGOs who strengthen self-help groups enabling
the beneficiaries to understand the importance of utilization of
government programs for their betterment(Mohan Rao, 2000).
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2.7. Problems Related To Tribal People In Andhra Pradesh
This chapter addresses the issues pertaining to the advocacy and
lobby for tribal peoples’ concerns on violation of their rights; vis-à –
vis lands, forests and other natural resources, violation of their
human rights and dignity, problems of development negligence and
lapses in government functioning, exploitation by non tribals, money-
lenders, traders, and by public and private industries.
The Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission, a
Constitutional body to look into the tribal people’s problems has
come at a very crucial juncture, when the rights and resources of the
tribal people of the country are under serious threat and at a time
when the constitutional safeguards are being violated or attempted
to be diluted advocating the rights of the tribal people, is felt an
urgent need to take advantage of this opportunity of placing before
the Commission some of the critical concerns with regard to the
tribal people in Andhra Pradesh. To that effect this study addresses
the effectiveness of tribal development programmes in
Mahaboobnagar District, Andhra Pradesh.
2.7.1 Land rights and land alienation
Scheduled Areas
Chenchus are recognized by Government of India as a Primitive
Tribal Group (PTG).
Their habitat is administratively dispersed in six districts and only a
part of it enjoys the scheduled area status. The Chenchu area with its
ITDA in Srisailam should be declared a Scheduled area. This status
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should also be extended to the area inhabited by the Yanadi Tribe in
Nellore district.
The Tribals do not have access to land records, not even the Record
of Rights. This lends them to a higher probability of getting exploited,
by the non-tribals and in some cases by the local officials. Wherever
lands are given yet the pattas are not given, or pattas handed over
yet the land is not shown, the process needs to be completed within
the next six months.
There is a discrepancy in demarcation of Scheduled Areas. In some
places it is village-wise and in some places it is an area declared as
the Scheduled Area. There should be a clear village-wise demarcation
of the Scheduled Area to avoid ambiguities and exploitation of tribal
lands. The Srikakulam district best illustrates the problems of such
ambiguities.
There are many tribal villages with more than 50% and even 100%
tribal population and contiguous to the existing scheduled areas,
which are not declared as scheduled areas.
These villages should be included in the list. In districts like
Srikakulam where there is a predominant tribal population in 1250
villages, only 108 villages are included in the Scheduled Area. The
same is true for West Godavari district in the K.R.Puram ITDA area.
Some of the tribal villages surrounding the Scheduled Areas are
administratively called the Sub-Plan Areas, where land alienation is
high and has numerous pending cases. Land restoration and issuing
title deeds to tribals as per LTR Act should be implemented
immediately in all these areas. This issue has to be immediately
addressed, since only land situated in those villages that fall within
the Scheduled Areas enjoy the protection under the Land Transfer
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Regulation Act 1/70 in Andhra Pradesh. Until the Scheduled Area is
extended, an order should be issued by the Governor banning
transfer of all tribal lands to non-tribals.
When taluks were divided into mandals in A.P in 1986, some of the
scheduled villages got included in the plain area mandals. Land
alienation is very serious problem in these areas and the
administration is not implementing the LTR Act here, as these areas
are a fraction of the total area of mandals. The mandals and
Scheduled Areas should be co-terminus.
The Agency Revenue Divisional Officers serve as judicial magistrates
and conduct agency courts in the Scheduled Areas. They are not
knowledgeable of judicial matters and LTR, as they are posted from
the Revenue Department. Because of their inexperience, numerous
land alienation cases are pending in such courts.
The revenue authorities (SDCs) are not restoring lands back to
tribals even after High Court orders. The implementation of the LTR
Act seems to be restricted to small non-tribal land holdings, while the
big landlords with huge tracts of tribal land remain unaffected.
Tribal villages in contiguous villages/mandals are dispersed into
separate districts. The groups felt strongly that there should be
separate tribal districts with one SDC each and that officers with
strong commitment towards tribal people should be posted so that
they would be more accessible and sincere to them.
At the local level some of the land disputes could be solved and
tribals’ rights could be settled by the SDC taking the assistance of
the traditional leadership in the villages that have knowledge of the
actual ownership of the land sand that have customary modes of
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dispute resolution. Oral testimonies could be accepted for settlement
of rights where written revenue records are not available or are
distorted by mischief. Such a provision exists in the Agency Rules of
1870. This system could be adopted both for settlement of rights on
revenue and forestlands.
The need to recognize traditional legal systems to deal with civil
cases and related matters was also raised and discussed in the
workshop. It was felt that such a move would strengthen the legal
framework in Scheduled Areas and would be harmonious with the
spirit of PESA. Philippines are one example of a country that has
fruitfully recognized its traditional dispute settlement systems.
Some lands in the Scheduled Areas are under the Endowments
department; a good example would be the Devasthanam lands in
Bhadrachalam (Khammam Dt.). These lands are being taken over by
non-tribals; while the tribals have no access to their ancestral lands.
In fact, The Endowments department has plans to auction such lands
to private bidders. These developments are in contravention of the
Fifth Schedule and the LTR Act and therefore such moves should be
withdrawn forthwith.
Non-tribals are using Court stay orders, and even acknowledgements
from the High Court to halt the restoration of lands in LTR cases.
Steps need to be taken to ensure that stay orders do not stall the
restoration process. One possibility would be to enshrine the LTR Act
under the IX Schedule of the Constitution.
Non-tribals are taking possession of lands in Scheduled Areas by
marrying tribal women. Most often, the tribal women, who are legal
owners of lands and yields, become concubines and are denied all
enjoyment over such rights by the non-tribal men. The groups felt
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that the children of a non-tribal father should not be given tribal
status as most of the tribal groups in the country follow a patriarchal
system of identity and ownership over property. It was felt that this
system should be followed in the tribal area as well in order to
prevent land alienation. Section 3(1) of LTR Act should be
accordingly amended prohibiting transfer of land to children of tribal
women married to non-tribal men. The groups also strongly felt the
need for a Special Commission to be appointed to review and enforce
implementation of LTR Act in the state.
Land alienation within tribes is a serious problem in some areas. For
example, the recognition of the Lambadas as a Scheduled Tribe in
1977 in Andhra Pradesh not has this status in other states, has led to
large-scale migration of this tribe into A.P.
The Sugali population was 1,32,464 in 1971; by 1981 the Sugali and
Lambada populations together became 11,58,342 a 77.4% increase.
By 1991, they were 16,41,897 in population. They have largely
spread in the districts of Adilabad, Khammam, Warangal,
Mahaboobnagar, Kurnool, Nalgonda and Prakasam, while scattered in
other districts to a lesser extent. They have taken over the lands of
the local tribes like the Gonds, Chenchus, Koyas, Kolams, etc. The
Chenchus have been worst affected by this migration. This conflict is
serious where lesser assertive tribes, like the Chenchus, have lost
lands to the Lambadas. From all the above-mentioned districts, there
was a strong feeling that such land alienation should be arrested. It
was collectively felt that a special protection should be provided for
the local tribes by a process of categorization of tribes both for the
purpose of preventing land alienation from lesser-developed tribes,
and for a more equal distribution of reservations and other
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constitutional provisions. The Commission has to look into this
matter very seriously.
The Rajasthan Tenancy Act, 1955, Section 42 (bb) can be used as a
reference for adopting similar safeguards on this issue. Section 3
(1)of LTR Act needs to be amended, to place a restriction on transfer
of immovable property by one member of Scheduled Tribe to
another, except with the consent of District Collector/Agent to
Government. (As suggested by Dr. P.V Ramesh IAS, in his paper
"Land Reforms and Land Transfer of Scheduled Areas of Andhra
Pradesh: Adequacy and Effectiveness").
Industries and Privatization in the Scheduled Areas: There is a clear
shift in the policies affecting tribal people and resources in the tribal
areas today, eroding the constitutional safeguards and the very spirit
of the constitution as laid down in the Fifth Schedule. Private and
public sector industries have been given lands in the Scheduled Areas
in contravention of the LTR Act and the Fifth Schedule of the
Constitution. Some such private industries are, the Badrachalam
Paper Board Limited (BPL) located in Palavancha, Khammam district;
AP Rayons, Kamalapur, Warangal Dt.; Orient Cements, Devapur,
Adilabad Dt.; and NavBharat Ferroalloys, Palavancha, Khammam Dt.
Some of the public sector industries are Singareni Collieries, in four
districts of the Scheduled Area; Sponge Iron India Ltd, Palavancha,
Khammam Dt.; Manuguru Heavy Water Plant, Manuguru, Khammam
Dt. and Andhra Steels in Palavancha. In Andhra Pradesh, some of the
critical problems in this context are:
Transferring lands in scheduled area to a private company is a
transgression of the LTR Act; this argument was upheld in favor of
the tribals in the is Judgement of 1997. Yet, the state government is
pursuing a policy of inviting private bidders and investors into the
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tribal areas in the name of economic development, both in the form
of fresh leases and through disinvestments of the public sector
companies.
An important issue that needs to be given cognizance is the fact that
private industries in the scheduled areas have not brought any
economic development to the local tribal communities, either in the
form of employment or other opportunities for livelihood. On the
contrary they have been exposed to further vulnerability in the hands
of the outsiders by losing their lands, livelihoods and cultures. They
are being economically and culturally displaced.
Even now this threat to privatize scheduled area lands continues in a
serious manner. At present, the Sponge Iron India Limited (SIIL) has
been thrown open for disinvestment, Hyderabad and a case is
pending in the High Court of A.P, filed by a local tribal group.
The Commission should forcefully look into this serious issue because
we find that the state itself is violating the Constitution and trying to
find back-door means of transgressing the Fifth Schedule and the
LTR Act.
In the case of BPL, Bhadrachalam, there are only 24 tribals employed
in the company. All the tribals who lost their lands directly and
indirectly (to the company, the non-tribal settlers and migrant
workers) over the years, the loss to agricultural activities, the loss of
forests due to heavy deforestation by the company and the settlers,
has not been accounted for. Moreover, the losses to the state
government due to default by the company against payment of
royalties has also gone unquestioned. The situation is similar with
other companies in the scheduled areas of the state.
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This has also resulted in attempts at diluting the Judgment and the
Fifth Schedule. Even after the Judgment, the Orient Cements Ltd. in
Adilabad district was given an extension initially. In September 2000,
there were attempts to give mining leases to a Dubai based company
in Sapparla and Jerrella of Chintapalli Mandal in Visakhapatnam
district and only after public protests from tribal groups was the
proposal withdrawn.
The Tribes Advisory Council (TAC) meeting was convened within
short intervals in the same year to pressurize them into granting
permission to allow private mining in the scheduled areas of the state
in the name of economic development.
The threat to open up bauxite mines in Anantagiri and Chintapalli
areas of Visakhapatnam is persistent. The hamlet which fought
against Calcite Mining in Nimmalapadu village of Anantagiri Mandal in
Visakhapatnam district and won the Samatha Judgement, faces
constant threat from the state, the non-tribals and benami tribals,
who are trying to misinterpret the Samatha Judgement definition of a
tribal society.
There is pressure from private industries to set up power projects,
especially mini-hydel projects in the Scheduled Areas by harnessing
the hill-streams. The state government is considering these
proposals and one such project which was in the pipeline was the
Jolaput Mini-Power project proposed in Peddabayalu Mandal of
Visakhapatnam district. By sanctioning such projects the government
is allowing for intrusion of private industries which can easily alienate
tribal lands once provided an entry point. Such projects can be easily
given to the local tribal communities themselves which can manage
these projects with basic skills and training imparted to them. One
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such project successfully implemented in Koraput district, Orissa.
Such programmes provide the required development amenities to the
tribal villages as there is no electricity in most of the villages, and
can also make the tribals self-sufficient while allowing them to retain
control over their lands and resources.
Tourism as an industry has led to a degradation of the tribal people,
economically and culturally. This is particularly a serious problem
where sacred places of worship have been taken over by the
government and converted into either tourist places or religious
places of tourism. Some of the important sites are Srisailam
(Chenchu area), Bhadrachalam (Khammam district) and the more
recent Borra Caves and Matsyagundam (Visakhapatnam district).
They have been either taken over by the Tourism Department or the
Endowments Board. In Borra, Araku and Matsyagundam, they have
been further subcontracted by the tourism department to private
contractors or companies where tribals, including the priests, who
were owners of the lands and religious places, are now converted to
casual labour. The revenue and incomes from these commercial
activities are not shared with the local communities or used for local
development activities in the areas (Mehta, 1975).
The state government needs to be more proactive in protecting the
LTR Act and the rights of the tribal people, rather than trying to
violate the laws of the Constitution to serve non-tribal and industry
interest groups.
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2.7.2.Forests And Forestry
The tribal people are facing serious problems with regard to
utilization and rights over forest resources. Due to the increasing
pressure on forests by various interest groups, there is a
corresponding pressure on the tribals to reduce their dependency on
forests. This is creating serious situations of conflict, as tribal life is
symbiotic with land and forests and their livelihood and culture are
based on their relationship with the natural wealth around them.
The tribals are being harassed for using forestlands and being evicted
in many places. Such reports have come from places like Khammam,
Visakhapatnam, Vizianagaram, Adilabad, Srisailam and other places.
In Khammam in one particular village, the forest and police
departments allegedly branded the tribals on their shoulders as an
indication that they were destroying the forests.
There are ambiguities in forest-revenue land demarcation. In some
places like Nellore district, a lot of land on Velugonda hills is indicated
as ‘poramboku’ in revenue records and as RF as per the forest
department. These lands do not have any forest growth. The FD is
taking up palm oil plantation in these RF lands (which is not a forest
species). However, landless tribals are booked in criminal cases or
prohibited from using these lands for agricultural cultivation. These
lands should be given to tribals with pattas for cultivation.
In some areas like in Visakhapatnam district, the lack of clear forest
boundaries is making tribals vulnerable to the exploitation of both
the forest and revenue departments. A joint survey and demarcation
of boundaries by both departments should be immediately taken up
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to arrest these conflicts. Such Joint surveys need to involve the
villagers at various levels.
The Forest-Revenue Boundary dispute is a perpetual problem in
Adilabad and Warangal districts, leading to booking of cases by the
Forest department and tension in these tribal villages.
In Visakhapatnam Agency and Nallamallai areas, there is the unique
problem of Enclosure Villages. There were many tribal villages that
were not enumerated in the forest surveys. Due to such sheer
negligence, the villages were not given revenue status and to this
day, they do not have pattas for their lands. They face constant
harassment from local forest officials they do not possess land
records. Recognizing these enclosure villages and issuing pattas to
tribals should immediately resolve this problem.
In Buttapur (Adilabad district) and in Nellore Dt. (Yanadis), the
tribals were given lands decades ago under the social forestry
scheme and are cultivating there. But due to lack of pattas, they are
being harassed by the police and forest departments and also do not
have access to bank loans as they cannot prove their ownership.
These tribals have to be given pattas as promised.
Attacks on tribals, their properties and livestock by wildlife are not
compensated by the Forest Department. Several cases are pending
where tribals have been either killed or disabled and yet have not
received any monetary compensation as due to them under the
Wildlife Act.
The tribals should not be prohibited from entering the forests to
collect NTFP for their domestic requirements, like firewood, medicinal
herbs, food, or agricultural and housing material.
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The tribals should not be defined as ‘encroachers’, as is being
projected by the forest department and also as indicated in the
Circular of IG Forests. The districts like Visakhapatnam, East
Godavari and Vizianagaram, where there is high prevalence of podu
cultivation, the tribals are facing threats of eviction from the forest
department.
There was a notification issued by the government of A.P in 1987
ordering that pre-1980 settlements will not be evicted until further
orders. This should be implemented.
The JFM programme now renamed as the Community Forest
Management programme of the A.P Forest Department has caused
grievous violations with regard to tribal rights. One major violation is
the displacement of tribals from their podu lands by reclaiming them
back into the forests through the JFM programme. The official reports
of the forest department and the World Bank (which has funded the
project) reveal that 37,000 hectares of forestland has been reclaimed
back from the people. The APFD further states its intention of
displacing tribals in G.O.13 where it calls for voluntary surrender of
lands by involving NGOs to motivate people under the CFM
programme.
The APFD has come up with a proposal for rehabilitation of tribals
displaced from their podu lands through a monetary and schematic
approach. This should be condemned as it bypasses the issue of
eviction and rights of people over their podu lands. Their act of
reclaiming lands under JFM programme and the APFD's forestry
project under World Bank assistance has to be scrutinized closely by
the Commission.
In Srisailam area, the Rajiv Gandhi Tiger Sanctuary has led to
eviction of tribals from their original homes. They have not been
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properly settled so far. The concept of EDC (Eco Development
Committees) that was introduced is working to the detriment of the
tribals, as the objective of this programme was to reduce the forest
dependency of the tribals. The tribals are given income-generating
programmes and alternate sources of firewood by the forest
department. This is an artificial mechanism that is not sustainable in
the long term.
In the Srisailam Tiger Sanctuary area, the Chenchus, who are
traditional hunter-gatherers, go into the forest every day for all their
needs. They are being harassed by the forest department for
trespassing into the sanctuary. The groups who came from the
chenchu area felt that the Chenchus should at least be given identity
cards to prevent harassment from forest department and the police
department who mistake them for naxalites.
Another serious problem with regard to Sanctuaries is the settlement
of people’s rights. The Settlement Officer is the Conservator of
Forests whereas the forest department is one of the interested
parties in the land acquisition for the sanctuary and hence it is not
appropriate to make the forest officer the settlement officer. It
should be the revenue department (District Collector) who should be
authorised to settle the people’s rights.
G.O.No.112 which calls for involvement of private industries like ITC,
Reliance and others for taking up commercial plantations through the
VSS should be withdrawn immediately, as this is a backdoor method
of allowing private industries to enter forest and tribal lands. Such
tripartite agreements between the government, the industries and
the tribals can never provide a level playing ground for the tribal
people and make them more vulnerable to the exploitation of private
industries.
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The historical injustices to the tribal people in this region and that of
the tribals in southern Orissa due to construction of several
‘development’ projects and industries like Nalco, HAL, Sileru,
Machkund and others which have displaced tribals in large numbers
without any rehabilitation, and has forced them to migrate in search
of livelihood. They are now being treated as encroachers and
criminals in forestlands. This definition should be condemned and
Commission should recommend proper mechanisms for resolution of
conflicts. The Commission should strongly recommend the orders
passed by the Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1990, on the
recommendations of the Commissioner of Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes, to ensure that such conflicts are resolved. Infact,
the first two orders alone show a way forward to settle disputes
concerning forestlands.
All the groups consulted strongly felt that the pressure on forests and
the destruction of forests is taking place more due to increase in
industries and private commercial activities like Mining, paper-mills,
timber smuggling and the growing non-tribal population settling
(Menon, 2002).
2.7.3. The Problem of Geographic Separation
The tribals of India are in a way geographically separated from the
rest of population. Some of them are living in the unapproachable
physical areas such as deep valleys, dense forests, hills, mountains,
etc. It is difficult for them to establish relations with others, and
hence, socially they are far away from the civilized world. This kind
of physical as well as social isolation or seclusion has contributed to
various other problems.
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2.7.4 Cultural Problems
The tribal culture is entirely different from the way of life of the
civilized people. The tribals fail to understand the civilized people,
their customs and practices, beliefs and attitudes and so on. They
are suspicious towards the civilized people. They are clinging
tenaciously to their customs and traditions.
During the British rule some foreign Christian missionaries made an
attempt to propagate their religion in some of the tribal areas,
particularly in the North-Eastern provinces. They even t” to impose
their culture on them.
Even today such an attempt is going on. On the other hand, the
Ramakrishna Mission, R.S.S, the Vishwa Hindu Parishad and other
organizations are spreading the Hinduism in these areas. Some of
the tribal leaders have now started popularizing the tribal religion.
These different propagandas have created a great confusion for
them.
The cultural gap between the civilized and the tribal people is coming
in the way of the assimilation and integration of the tribal people into
the mainstream of the national life of India.
2.7.5. Social Problems
The tribals have their own social problems also. They are traditional
and custom-bound. The; have become the victims of superstitious
beliefs, outmoded and meaningless practices and harmful habits.
Child marriage, infanticide, homicide, animal sacrifice, exchange of
wives, black magic and other harmful practices are still found among
them.
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They believe in ghosts and spirits. They have keen desire to maintain
all these practices in general, and their individual tribal character.
Hence it is said that “the tribals are the tribesmen first, the
tribesmen last and the tribesmen all the time”.
2.7.5. Economic Problem
The tribal people are economically the poorest people of India.
Majority of them live beta the poverty line. The tribal economy is
based on agriculture of the crudest type. The main economic
problems of the tribals are explained below.
(i) Exploitation
The innocence, illiteracy and helplessness of the tribals are exploited
by the outsiders. The British policy, in particular, had led to ruthless
exploitation of the tribals in various ways as it favored the
zamindars, landlords, money-lenders, forest contractors and excise,
revenue and police officials.
(ii) Unprofitable Agriculture
About 90% of the tribals are engaged in cultivation and most of them
are landless and practice shifting cultivation. They need to be helped
in adopting new methods of cultivation. The tribals possess
uneconomic holdings because of which their crop yield is very less. A
very small percentage of the population participates in occupational
activities in the secondary and tertiary sectors.
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(iii) Problems of land ownership
A good portion of the land in the tribal areas has been legally
transferred to non-tribals. Tribals demand that this land should be
returned to them. In fact the tribals had earlier enjoyed much
freedom to use the forest and hunt their animals. They and
emotionally attached to the forests for they believe that their gods,
spirits live in forests.
The tribals who are “deprived’ of their rights to the land and forest
have reacted sharply to the restrictions imposed by the government
on their traditional rights.
(iv) Unemployment and Underemployment
A large number of tribal young men and women are either
unemployed or underemployed. They are unhappy for they are not
able to get jobs that can keep them occupied throughout the year.
They need to be helped in finding secondary source of income by
developing animal husbandry, poultry farming, handicrafts,
handloom weaving, etc.
(v) Non-Availability of Banking Facilities
Banking facilities in the tribal areas are so inadequate that the tribals
have mainly to depend on the money-lenders. The tribals, therefore,
demand that “Agricultural Indebtedness Relief Acts” should be
enacted so that they may get back their mortgaged land.
2.7.6. Educational Problems
Illiteracy is a major problem of the tribals. More than 80% of them
are illiterate. Literacy among them has increased from 0.7% in 1931
to 11.30% in 1970 and to 16.35% in 1981. These shows more than
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3/4 of the tribals are illiterate. They have no faith in formal
educational organization. Many of them do not know anything about
education, schools, colleges, universities, degrees, etc.
They feel no urge to educate their children. Since most of the tribals
are poor, education appears to be a luxury for them. In the case of
those people who are engaged in agriculture, their minor children are
also engaged in it. The illiterate parents do not consider it as their
primary responsibility to give education to their children.
i. The Problem of Language
The medium of instruction is another hindrance to the promotion of
education among the tribes. Most of the tribal languages do not have
a script of their own. Hence the children are obliged to learn things in
a language which is foreign to them. Even in tribal areas the number
of tribal teachers is very less and hence communication problem
always arises between the students and the teachers.
ii. The curriculum of education is another main problem
The existing curriculum, as experts rightly have pointed out, is not
suited and has little relevance to the tribal people.
2.7.7. Problem of Health and Sanitation
Due to illiteracy and ignorance the tribals are not able to appreciate
modern concept of health and sanitation. They do not take much
care pertaining to their own health. They believe that diseases are
caused by hostile spirits and ghosts. They have their own traditional
means of diagnosis and cure. Good number of them fall a prey to
the diseases such as skin disease, forest fever, typhoid, T.B.,
leprosy, malaria, venereal diseases, small px, etc. Contact with
outsiders further added to a few more diseases in the tribal areas.
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It is observed that the Thodas of Niligiri Hills have been suffering
from some modern diseases like venereal diseases, diabetes, blood
pressure, etc. after coming into touch with the British who made
Niligiri Hills one of their summer resorts. These diseases take a
heavy toll of tribal life. Their suspicion and lack of faith in modern
doctors have made them not to avail their selves of the modern
medical facilities.
2.7.7. Problem of Separatism
The “divide and rule” policy adopted by the British did a lot of
damage to the tribal community of India. The British had
superimposed their British administrative patterns in tribal areas and
deprived the tribals of their traditional methods of interacting with
people. The “Criminal Tribes Act” which the British had introduced
gave an impression that the tribals were either “criminals” or “anti-
social beings”.
The tribal groups such as Kolis, Mundas, Khasis, Santals, Naga, etc,
who fought against the British were branded as “dacoits” and
“robbers”. The British government which wanted to humble these
tribals and “correct” them gave direct encouragement to the foreign
Christian missionary activities especially in, the Central and the
North-Eastern Zone. These activities which are:
i. Tribal Revolts and Uprisings
Numerous revolts and uprisings of the tribals have taken place
beginning with the one in Bihar in 1772, followed by many other
revolts in Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram and
Nagaland. The important tribes involved in revolt in the 19th century
were Mizos. [1810], Kols [1795 and 1831], Mundas [1889], Daflas
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[1875],Khasi and Garo [1829],Kacharis [1839],Santhals [1853],
Muria Gonds [1886], Nagas [1844 and 1879],Bhuiyas [1868] and
Kondhs [1817], During the recent tribal uprisings the Nagas, Mizos
and the Bodostook part in them in large number and created serious
law and order problem.
ii. Smuggling, Infiltration and Drug Addiction
The foreign infiltrators especially from Bangladesh, Pakistan, Burma
and China are entering the borders of India through what are known
as “tribal belts” Some of them take undue advantage of the tribals’
innocence and ignorance for their smuggling activities.
Prohibited drugs and unlicensed weapons are smuggled inside the
land and beyond the borders of India through the tribal areas. Some
of the tribal have been made the victims of drug addiction. Hence,
tribal areas in the borders have become extremely sensitive areas
(Rai, 1976).
Thus, this study is conducted to understand the Impact of the
development of indigenous Chenchu Tribes in the areas of
Mahabubnagar district of A.P. Before going into details of the study,
a review of literature on the above subject was made and presented
in the next chapter.
2.8. Summary
In this chapter, the status of tribes in India, particularly in the state
of Andhra Pradesh has been reviewed. The Indian tribal society is a
unique society with diversity of nature and people. In our country,
known for the extreme poverty of the masses, the tribals constitute
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the core of the poor. Poverty, poor health and sanitation, illiteracy
and other social problems among the tribals are exerting a dragging
effect on the Indian economy. The Five Year Plans formulated the
implementation of a series of investment-backed schemes and
projects for the betterment of the conditions of the tribals living in
the rural and urban areas. Many of the tribes with their forest-
dwelling culture do not have the motivation or the skill of settled
cultivation. As a result, their land has been alienated to their better
endowed tribal neighbours or non-tribals. There have been many
tribal studies in India based on tribal economy, land alienation, socio-
economic development of tribal populations, particularly the
chenchus of Andhra Pradesh.