chapter - ii. - shodhganga : a reservoir of indian theses...
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Chapter - II.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Review of Literature
2.3. References
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CHAPTER - II REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1. Introduction:
The present study is made on the gender stratification in primary
education in Gulbarga district. Here the opinions based on the experiences of
the male and female students are collected on whether these students are
encouraged in getting education equally. Further, the attitudes of the parents of
both male and female students are studied based on the primary data collected
from these students. There are many studies on female literacy, primary
education, female education, gender inequality in education, etc. To find out
the research gap for the present study, it is essential to study all the information
that is published already. Of course, due to limited time frame, it is impossible
to study all the secondary literature that is published on the present study and
hence, the collected literature is essentially to be reviewed.
To serve this purpose, the researcher searched the relevant literature on
certain keywords which are able to fulfill the information requirements of the
research study. To collect the relevant literature, the researcher searched
various Journals and other publications such as books in the Sociology, Social
Work, Education and other related subject disciplines on the following
keywords:
Primary Education;
Gender Inequality;
Elementary Education;
Female Education;
Educational Inequality;
Govt. Welfare Schemes on Primary Education;
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2.2. Review of Literature:
The collected secondary literature on the above stated keywords is
reviewed to find research gap as under.
Karlekar (2000) in his paper entitled “Girl‟s Access to Schooling: An
Assessment”, stated that a supply and demand evaluation of girls‘ access to
schooling in India considers educational facilities and family dynamics as well
as efforts by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to reduce the gender gap.
A description of the educational content and teaching methods in primary
schools suggests a value-loaded curriculum that includes a hidden agenda of
appropriate socialization for girls. Other obstacles to equal access for girls
include the cost of school, inadequate nutrition, and burdensome household
chores. Actions shown to improve female school attendance, especially in rural
areas, include girls' schools, women teachers, free textbooks/supplies,
appropriate drinking water/toilet facilities, provision of child care to relieve
girls from caring for younger siblings, and family education aimed at changing
attitudes about the value of education for girls. It is argued that the primary
responsibility for making basic education available, setting teacher standards,
and regulating curricula/textbooks should lie with the state. However, NGOs
should increasingly support and assist the state in these activities. Other
strategies for improving girls‘ access to basic education are suggested.
Sudarshan (2000) in his paper “Educational Status of Girls and
Women: The Emerging Scenario”, describes education in India from
independence to the present, evaluates the status of girls/women, and analyzes
quantitative data on a range of educational indicators within the context of an
evolving educational policy. Strengths and weaknesses of the current system
are examined, along with school attendance/literacy outcomes across states,
and variations in educational access between men/woman as well as social
groups/castes. Significant regional differences were found in terms of access,
attendance, and literacy. Although there was a positive correlation between
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literacy and income/land ownership, there was roughly a 20% male/female
differential. The results of an evaluation of the validity of the resource
constraint argument for the inadequate provision of basic education indicate
India has sufficient resources to improve educational performance.
Examination of various points of intervention suggests that the most effective
ones focus on quality of schooling instead of access. Success is also associated
with an environmental approach that reduces the child's conflict with other
demands on his/her time.
Neelam Kumar (2001) published a paper entitled “Gender and
Stratification in Science: An Empirical Study in the Indian Setting” in
„Indian Journal of Gender Studies‟. The author conducted a study which
offers empirical evidence of gender inequities in the academic hierarchy as an
important aspect of the social organization of Indian science. While there are
no statistically significant differences in terms of writing books and articles and
presenting papers at conferences, the two groups (men and women scientists)
differ in terms of academic rank. Discrimination is one obvious explanation,
and gender stratification can be proposed as a perspective to explain this
phenomenon. Research performance appears to be unrelated to the differential
ranking of men and women scientists; rather, it points toward a lack of
universalistic factors in promotion. Another finding is that there is no
difference between men and women scientists in terms of recognition
measures, such as awards and membership of professional organizations.
The results reveal: (1) the role of gender, an inscriptive factor, as a reference
point from which differentiation does take place within Indian scientific
institutions; and (2) the association between scientific careers for women and
the class structure.
Alaka Malwade Basu (2002) writes on “Why does Education Lead to
Lower Fertility? A Critical Review of Some of the Possibilities” in „World
Development‟. In spite of close to a quarter century of research and policy
interest in the quite uniquely universal negative relation between female
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education and fertility, the mechanisms behind this relation continue to intrigue
and to fascinate. This paper tries to review critically some of the more common
mechanisms suggested by the literature and offers a new look at some
alternative possibilities.
Manjrekar (2003) published a paper entitled “Contemporary
Challenges to Women‟s Education: Towards an Elusive Goal?” in
„Economic & Political Weekly‟. Why has education been peripheral to the
concerns of the contemporary women‘s movement in India, especially given
the legacy of struggle by women to establish their right to education? How can
the women‘s movement re-engage with questions of education? Part of the
challenge in thinking through concerns about gender and education lies in
uncovering the dialectical linkages between the formal education system and
larger social and economic processes and their influence on girls‘ and women‘s
lives.
Vimala Ramachandran (2003) writes on “Backward and Forward
Linkages that Strengthen Primary Education” in „Economic & Political
Weekly‟. It is widely acknowledged that a significant proportion of children,
especially those from underprivileged backgrounds and girls, either drop out of
primary school or even if they attend school, learn very little. Moreover, there
is a wide gap in learning achievements between government schools and
private/aided schools. The active participation of children in primary education
hinges on a plethora of factors. Besides access, a range of demand and supply
issues influence why children choose to attend school regularly. Thus far,
policy-makers and education administrators have focused mainly on the formal
school system and on improving access to education. The creation of
‗backward and forward‘ linkages is essential to creating an environment where
every child not only goes to school but benefits from it.
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Divya Vaid (2004) published a paper entitled “Gendered Inequality in
Educational Transitions” in „Economic & Political Weekly‟. This paper
highlights the causes for the inequality in educational transitions in India.
Where education is concerned, not only do girls lag behind, but also certain
communities and classes fare worse than others. The aim of this paper is
twofold. Firstly, to highlight the factors responsible for this inequality for both
boys and girls from socially deprived origins, and secondly, to highlight in
particular the inequality faced by girls at each educational transition stage.
The paper uses a unique National Election Study (1996) data set that contains
information on the respondent and the respondent‘s parent‘s caste, class,
religion and locality. The major results of this study are only partly consistent
with previous research. There was weak support for the effect of caste, but
class on the other hand emerged as a strong determinant of the relative chance
of a child continuing in school. No support was found for an additional class
effect where the education of girls is concerned, thus refuting the notion of a
more egalitarian Indian middle class.
Naomi Hossain and Naila Kabeer (2004) published an article
“Achieving Universal Primary Education and Eliminating Gender
Disparity” in „Economic & Political Weekly‟. Bangladesh has achieved
remarkable success in expanding primary education, especially for girls,
despite continuing prevalence of widespread poverty and social devaluation of
women and girls. This paper argues that underlining this success is a
confluence of both demand- and supply-side factors involved in bringing about
a profound social change. It explores the changing structure of economic
opportunities and gender relations affecting parents‘ perception of the value of
female education. The challenge now is to improve the quality of education
that may prove more difficult than the expansion of access.
Vimala Ramachandran (2004) published “Is Schooling for the Poor
on the Government Agenda?” in „Economic & Political Weekly‟. While
elementary education, its availability and distribution have shown an
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improvement in recent years, vast sections such as the poor, girls in rural areas,
tribals and some among the scheduled castes remain out of its reach. The new
government needs to review existing centrally-assisted programmes to ensure
that region- and context-specific issues are highlighted, more particularly that
such schemes are tailored to meet the varying needs of a vast and complex
country.
Anand and Yadav (2006) in their paper “The inclusion of SC Girls in
Education: A Long Path Ahead” published in „Social Change‟, discussed on
the issue of the Scheduled Caste or what may be called the Dalit issue is one of
the worst examples of discrimination against, and the oppressive living
conditions of millions of people in India. The girl child is a critical agent in any
society. Despite more than half a century of various affirmative action policies
and programmes, there remains little improvement in the overall status,
particularly educational status of SC girls. A large number of SC girls do not
have access to successive stages of education. The drop-out rate of the
Scheduled Caste Girls is another crucial indicator in the field of educational
development. The present paper not only lists the factors responsible for the
low female literacy and non-participation of SC girls in education but also
makes an attempt to look into some of the initiatives undertaken by the
government to improve the situation. Finally, the paper identified the critical
concerns in the field and suggests strategies to reach out to the SC girl child in
the area in the area of education.
Chandrasekhar and Mukhopadhyay (2006) write on “Primary
Education as a Fundamental Right Cost Implications” in „Economic &
Political Weekly‟. In an attempt to attain the goal of universal primary
education, many developing country governments, including India, have
abolished official fees in primary education. The 86th
amendment to the Indian
Constitution made free and compulsory education a fundamental right for all
children in the age group 6-14 years. There are other direct and indirect costs
that can deter children from going to school. In this paper, using a rich
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nationwide data set, the authors construct the incompressible direct costs of
attending primary school in India. After controlling for the opportunity cost of
going to school (as proxied by the ratio of children‘s wages to adult‘s wages),
it is found that the direct costs of education adversely affect the probability of
children going to school, more so for children from poorer households.
The results show that relative to boys, girls are more likely to be affected by the
direct costs of schooling. The authors show that making primary education
completely free will not increase the attendance rates to 100 per cent. They find
that the government will have to incur an additional minimum expenditure of
over Rs. 2,900 crore every year in order to defray the basic or incompressible
cost of attending school.
Mehrotra (2006) writes on “Reforming Elementary Education in
India: A Menu of Options” in „International Journal of Educational
Development‟. This paper reports on findings from a large sample survey in
the states of India that account for two thirds of the children out of school.
It then examines the feasibility of the central government‘s goals to ensure
all children complete 5 years of school by 2007, and 8 years by 2010.
These goals—more ambitious than the global EFA goals—are unlikely to be
achieved without significant reforms by the central and state governments.
It examines key reform options: in the public spending pattern; improving
teacher accountability and work environment; incentives to improve demand
for schooling; and the private sector. It argues that central to universalising
elementary education will be improving the level, equity and efficiency of
public spending. However, even with these reforms, improving teacher
accountability will still remain key to the achievement of the goals.
Ravikumar (2006) in his paper “When Gandhi‟s Talisman No
Longer Guides Policy Considerations: Market, Deprivation and Education
in the Age of Globalization” published in „Social Change‟, remarked that
now people have witnessed a flurry of activities in the ‗education sector‘ in
India. These activities are located within the larger context of globalization
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dominated by the neo-liberal capital. The paper argues that given the social and
economic segregation in Indian society education has always seen
discriminatory. However, recent neo-liberal influences in policy making have
accentuated the segregation furthermore. Everything, including education, is
out in the market for a sale as a commodity. When the purchasing capacity of
the majority remains low, it becomes difficult to buy education and therefore
most Indians- the poor, Dalits and the girl child – are getting alienated from
education. Gandhi‘s Talisman that, at least, appeared as the guiding force in a
welfare state no longer remains so in the neo-liberal era. The consequence is
institutionalization of discrimination in education.
Chinna Ashappa and Sultana (2007) in their paper presentation
entitled “Gender Equality in Education in India: The Imperative of
Reforms in Social Polity”, stated that the complex stratification systems in
India give rise to a multiplicity of social categories which often obscure the
relative status of women and men within the more disadvantaged segments of
the population. The past decade has witnessed a significant increase in the
importance accorded to education, with both instrumental as well as intrinsic
arguments made, for increasing financial investment and policy attention to
education provision. Although significant gains have been made in women‘s
education as a result of global advocacy and donor pressure, more often than
not these gains are fragile and vulnerable to changes in economic and social
environments and lagging behind male rates of enrolment and achievement.
The objective of the present study is to critically evaluate the effectiveness of
the current educational intervention programmes and bring out the case for
bringing the much needed reforms in social policy of the government.
The paper is based on the secondary sources of information. The argument of
the authors is that investing in education generally and women‘s education in
particular, is good for development is consistently made in policy documents of
the World Bank and other agencies. These arguments, however, have limited
value. Responding to these diverse and complex forms of exclusion remains a
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challenge, and there has been a wide range of interventions targeted at
improving female education. However, efforts at local change need to be
backed up by macro level policy changes particularly in the area of providing
economic policies that encourage the participation of women in the workforce
and enable them to fight labour market discrimination. These changes are also
necessary to encourage the education of young girls. The paper concluded that
the lessons from micro level interventions that move beyond merely addressing
economic incentives to girls for their education and take into account the social
and cultural rules and norms that perpetuate discrimination against girls need to
be more centrally reflected in macro policies for promoting gender equity in
education.
Ghosh (2007) in his paper “The Gender Gap in Literacy and
Education among the Scheduled Tribes in Jharkhand and West Bengal”
published in „Sociological Bulletin‟ focuses on the gender gap in literacy and
education among the Scheduled Tribes in Jharkhand and West Bengal as
measured by the gender disparity index. The female literacy rates among the
Ho and Mahali in Jharkhand and the Lodha in West Bengal are low, with high
gender disparity, as compared with other tribes. The gender disparities among
most of the tribes tend to increase at the higher level of school education.
The article also analyses the enrolment ratios and dropouts of female children,
and discusses the issues related to tribal education.
Khasnabis and Chatterjee (2007) writes on “Enrolling and Retaining
Slum Children in Formal Schools: A Field Survey in Eastern Slums of
Kolkata” in „Economic & Political Weekly‟. India is yet to achieve the goal
of universalisation of elementary education or 100 per cent enrolment and
retention of children with schooling facilities in all habitations. Despite the
government‘s attempt to achieve this goal through the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan,
which has a special focus on girl children, students belonging to disadvantaged
families still do not attend classes regularly. This paper examines various
reasons for poor attendance behaviour of students in formal schools. On the
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basis of a study in the eastern slums of Kolkata, it finds that retaining the
students in a formal school is far more difficult than enrolling them,
particularly if the students are from very poor economic backgrounds.
Kingdon (2007) writes on “The Progress of School Education in
India” in „Oxford Review of Economic Policy‟. This paper provides an
overview of school education in India. First, it places India‘s educational
achievements in international perspective, particularly against countries with
which it is now increasingly compared, especially China. Second, the paper
examines schooling access in terms of enrolment and school attendance rates,
and schooling quality in terms of literacy rates, learning achievement levels,
school resources, and teacher inputs. Third, the paper investigates the role of
private schooling in India, examining the extent of growth of private schooling
and surveying evidence on the relative effectiveness and unit costs of private
and public schools. Last, the paper discusses some major public education
initiatives. The concluding section suggests a future research agenda and
appeals for rigorous evaluation of the impacts and costs of the numerous
existing educational interventions, in order to learn about their relative cost-
effectiveness for evidence-based policy-making.
Vidyasagar (2007) published “Educational Challenges and the Role
of Teachers in Andhra Pradesh: A Case for Institutional Initiatives” in
„Journal of Social and Economic Development‟. All is not well with the
elementary education system in the state of Andhra Pradesh, and this research
paper is an attempt to understand the current status of the system and the ills
that plague it. Although the problems in the educational system are
multidimensional, in recent times, the issue of teacher performance has
assumed significance. Educational inequality, quality and teacher performance
seem to have challenged not only governments at all levels, but the people at
large. Official records speak volumes on this predicament that affects the
marginalized far more than others. In this context, this paper attempts to
discuss all such developments that impinge upon the prevailing educational
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scenario in the State. As policies and programmes of the Union Government
also impact the status of education at the state level, an attempt is made to
delineate some national interventions. While presenting a critical review of
certain institutional initiatives at various levels, this paper analyses immediate
concerns that deserve the attention of State and non-State agencies. As part of
assessing the contribution of several stakeholders towards strengthening school
management, which is a major challenge, this study also explores other related
issues.
Vinita Singh (2007) presented on “Women Students: A Study of
Continuity and Change” and the paper is based on a survey of women
students enrolled in the colleges in Ranchi. The paper analyses the factors
leading to the growth of consciousness and changing attitudes towards their
careers among the women students against the backdrop of the changing socio-
economic conditions. The paper looked into relevant issues such as the diverse
socio-economic backgrounds of the students, the reasons for growing mobility
among them, impact communication revolution, growth of popular culture and
their role in the on going process of global transformation. As representatives
of the changing socio-economic conditions, the women students are quick
paced to meet the challenges thrown upon them. The fact that they are
managing to strike a balance between their growing career aspirations and
personal lives is quite significant as it is symbolic of the continuity and change
that co-exists in Indian society.
Saleha Parveen (2008) published a paper entitled “Female Education
and National Development: As Viewed By Women Activists and
Advocates” in „Bulletin of Education and Research‟. The term development
is very broad and may be interpreted in different ways by different individuals.
It is a global process of societal change that is planned cooperatively by
government and international organizations with the full and informed
participation of the inhabitants of the area to be developed. In fact the progress
of any society largely depends on the effectiveness of its educational system
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and the best educational system is that which gives equal opportunities of
getting education to all its members. Female literacy plays a very significant
and crucial role in the development of nation especially in the economic
development of a country. But Female Education in Pakistan, its status and
standard particularly is at the lowest ebb. Thousands of girls‘ otherwise
intelligent and capable enough to get education, but are deprived of because of
multifarious socio-cultural and economic reasons and gender prejudices. Due to
this reason they are unable to play active role in the development of society.
This study reflects the views of women activist about the role of females in
national development and suggests necessary measures for improvement of the
situation.
Sedwal and Kamat (2008) published a report “Education and Social
Equity: With a Special Focus on Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
in Elementary Education”. The Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled
Tribes (STs) are among the most socially and educationally disadvantaged
groups in India. This paper examines issues concerning school access and
equity for Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe communities and also
highlights their unique problems, which may require divergent policy
responses. The paper is divided into seven main parts. The first two sections
introduce the reader to the nature of exclusion and discrimination faced by
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and outlines the debate on the role of
education in improving the socio-economic profile of both groups. The third
section explains the socio-economic conditions within which Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes live and their marginalized status in contemporary India.
The fourth section provides a discussion of literacy advancement among these
groups, and of national policies and programmes which aim to improve school
access and equity. The fifth section highlights special efforts made by certain
state governments to improve educational participation of these two
communities as well as the educational experiments on a more modest scale
undertaken by community based Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs).
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The sixth section focuses on casteism as a deeply ideological issue that
undercuts even the most genuine reform measures, and suggests research and
policy options that may help to address underlying structural and ideological
issues. The concluding section highlights a few critical areas for further
research in the area.
Sai Sujatha and Brahmananda Reddy (2009) published a paper on
“Women‟s Education, Autonomy and Fertility Behaviour” in „Asia-Pacific
Journal of Social Sciences‟. In the present study, an attempt has been made to
study women‘s education, autonomy and fertility behaviour in Andhra Pradesh
based on the data of NFHS-II (1998-99) and NFHS-III (2005-06). Women‘s
education has shown an inverse relationship with fertility behaviour in
particular after achieving a threshold level of middle school education. Median
birth interval has decreased with increasing educational level of women.
Higher birth order children and son preference was found to be more among
illiterate women. Autonomy in decision making, access to money and freedom
of movement showed an increasing trend with the educational level of women.
This showed that women‘s education up to secondary education in particular
can play a significant role in initiating a fertility transition and women‘s
autonomy in Andhra Pradesh.
Pajankar and Pajankar (2010) published a paper entitled
“Development of School Education Status in India” in „Journal of Social
Sciences‟. India has a long history of organized education. Gurukuls were
traditional Hindu residential schools of learning; typically the teacher‘s house
or a monastery. The current system of education, with its western style and
content, was introduced and funded by the British in the 19th
century, following
recommendations by Macaulay. Traditional structures were not recognized by
the British government and have been on the decline since. Because of these
initiatives taken by the States and Centre, education system in India has
expanded exponentially over the past five decades, but its current achievements
are grossly inadequate for the nation to realize its potential greatness.
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The present study is an attempt to study the changing scenario of school
education in India and educational needs at the various schooling stages.
The study also examines the salient features of school education on selected
parameters based on the seventh survey data. Tangible comparisons with sixth
survey data will also be made to reveal the temporal changes over two points of
time covering a period of nearly one decade.
Ruby Pal (2010) published a paper on “Enlightenment through
Education: The Case of the Children of Domestic Helps of Kolkata” in
„Journal of Social and Economic Development‟. Education is a yardstick of
development. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has
included ‗educational attainment index‘ in the measurement of development
since 1990. If an economy‘s progress attains increased pace with improvement
in educational attainment, one can expect the same for an individual or the
society. A study was conducted on 270 female domestic helps of Kolkata, who
were living close to or below the Poverty Line; they are usually less educated
but are trying hard to educate their children hoping to bring them to the
mainstream of economic activity and thereby improving their standard of
living. Will they be successful in achieving what they dream of? The answer is
sought in this study. It delves into the various intricacies of life of this section
of unorganized labour market and then looks into the discrepancy, if any,
between their hope and reality.
Sandhya Rani (2010) writes on “Women‟s Education in India: An
Analysis” in „Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences‟. Education is a
reasonably good indication of development and the right of every individual to
education is one of the first provisions of the Universal Declaration on Human
Rights. But education is often neglected in societies struggling to meet the
needs of their people. Recently, education has received greater priority as
Planners and Policy makers finally recognized it as a key factor in determining
the pace of development. Women in India constitute 50 percent of the
country‘s human resources and their contributions are vital for the nation‘s
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progress. But the magnitude of illiteracy among women is very high.
Only 54.16 percent of women are literates as per 2001 Census. Even though the
education system expanded very rapidly, the gender gap, in literacy remains
conspicuous by its presence. The Constitution of India confers on women,
equal rights and opportunities in all fields. The Government of India has
endorsed the same through its Plans, Policies and Programmes. In spite of all
these, women in India have not been able to take full advantage of their rights
and opportunities in practice for various reasons. Therefore, in this paper an
attempt has been made to highlight the International and National initiatives to
promote women‘s education in India.
Shahinshah Babar Khan (2010) writes on “Problems in
Universalization of Primary Education in Pakistan” in „Pakistan Journal
of Commerce and Social Sciences‟. ―Education for all‖ is a global slogan and
government of Pakistan is committed to achieve the goal of Universalization of
primary education. For this government is establishing new schools in remote
areas so that more and more children can get access to school. Public-private
partnership and collaboration with non-government organizations are the steps
to attain the level of Universalization of primary education. Government is
trying to make schools attractive for children, and is introducing schemes to
attract parents as well. There are number of problems like poverty, ignorance,
low quality teaching, which affects the government efforts. The aim of the
study is to highlight the problems in universalization of primary education in
Pakistan. A questionnaire was developed on five point Likert scale for knowing
the opinion of teachers about the problems in the universalization of primary
education. Each statement of the questionnaire was checked by using chi-
square technique. It was found that poverty, lack of awareness about
importance of education, cultural values are the main problems in achieving
universalization of primary education. On the basis of findings it is
recommended that awareness about education may be created among the
parents, Public schools play their role in decreasing the dropout rate, School
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Curriculum may design as which match the work place, teachers may be
appointed in the far flung areas, Local Community may be involved. It is also
considered by people that public institutions are not catering quality education,
this notion may be abolished.
Sharmila and Dhas (2010) write on “Development of Women
Education in India”. Women constitute almost half of the population of the
world. Education for women is the best way to improve the health, nutrition
and economic status of a household that constitute a micro unit of a nation
economy. In this context, it can be argued that lack of woman education can be
an impediment to the country‘s economic development. In India, women
achieve far less education that of men. As per the Census report 2001, the
literacy rate of women is 54.16 per cent and that of men is 65.38 per cent.
There has been a sincere effort to improve the education attainment of women
by both government and voluntary organizations. The changes in the policies
and infrastructural supports on primary, secondary and higher education reflect
the initiatives of the Government of India towards women education. In this
backdrop, the paper examined the trends in women education and the
investment on education and infrastructural supports in India. The paper is
divided into three sections. Section 1 discusses the trends in female literacy
levels in India. The section 2 presents the investments on education and the
infrastructural supports in India. The last section provides the summary of the
findings and conclusions.
Zakir Husain (2010) published on “Gender Disparities in Completing
School Education in India: Analyzing Regional Variations”. This paper
examines gender differences in probability of completing school education
across regions in India. A Gender Disparity Index is calculated using National
Sample Survey Organization unit level data from the 61st Round and regional
variations in this index analyzed to examine the hypothesis that gender
disparity is greater in the North, comparative to the rest of India. This is
followed by an econometric exercise using a logit model to confirm the results
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of the descriptive analysis after controlling for socioeconomic correlates of
completing school education. Finally, the Fairlie decomposition method is used
to estimate the contribution of explanatory variables in explaining differences
in probabilities of completing schooling across regions. The results reveal that
gender disparities are greater in North India, for total and rural population, and
in Eastern India, for urban population. However, the ‗residual effect‘ after
accounting for effect of explanatory variables - often referred to as
‗discrimination effect‘, as opposed to disparity is higher in Eastern India,
irrespective of the place of residence.
Ashiq Hussain et al. (2011) published a paper entitled “Causes of
Students‟ Dropout at Primary Level in Pakistan: An Empirical Study” in
„International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences‟. The present
study has been designed to identify the causes of high dropout rate at the
primary level in Pakistan. Data was collected from 94 district mangers;
144 head teachers and 288 teachers; 288 parents and 864 students-50% dropout
students and 50% stay-ins at the time of study using Mixed-Research Methods.
The main causes and factors of high dropout at primary level in Pakistan
revealed from the findings of the study are: too expensive education, distance
from home to school, teacher‘s harsh behavior, lack of parents‘ interest,
difficult syllabus, poor health, poverty, non-availability of facilities and
excessive homework. The findings may be useful for the planners, policy
makers, and teacher educators to take measures for controlling dropout and
increasing enrollment or participation rate at the primary level in Pakistan.
Ashish (2011) published a paper entitled “Gender Disparity in the
Educational System: An Investigation of the Universal Primary Education
in India” in „African Journal of Education and Technology‟. Gender
inequality in education is one important aspect of educational disparity.
The Constitution of India provided for universal education to all children up to
the age of 14 years; the goal was to be achieved by 1980. While considerable
progress has been made in this regard in the decade of the 1990s, much still
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remains to be done for girls‘ education. Enrolment rates at the primary level
have risen considerably but many of the children that enroll drops out and only
a very small number manage to get beyond the primary stage. Female literacy
rates varied from 20% in Rajasthan and 25% in Uttar Pradesh to 86% in
Kerala, reflecting very uneven efforts to expand educational achievements.
The comparative data of males and females reveals the literacy gaps between
them in the Indian society especially in the State of Punjab. According to 2001
census the State of Punjab is ranked seventh in terms of education amongst the
states. This study is analytically based using surveys, chronological facts and
figures with inferences deduced form the status of primary education in the
state of Punjab, India; it evaluated the status of female education in the State.
Incidentally, the selection of districts represents traditional geographical
categorization of Punjab, Majha, Malwa, and Doaba. The three divisions are
further divided into sub-divisions and villages. The research is an outcome of
questionnaire prepared to collect data from 200 respondents which includes
Girl Students. The paper criticizes the lack of judicial protection of the rights of
female education and concludes that the National Commission for Women
should take initiatives for checking gender disparities in education.
Bhat et al. (2011) writes on “Gender Disparity and Policies of
Inclusion: A Case Study of Women‟s Education in Jammu and Kashmir”
in „Researcher‟s World: Journal of Arts, Science, and Commerce‟.
Gender disparity has been a major issue in India‘s pursuit for achieving the
goal of universal elementary education. Education for women is the best way to
improve the health, nutrition and economic status of a household that constitute
a micro unit of a nation‘s economy. In this context, it can be argued that lack of
women‘s education can be an impediment to the country‘s economic
development. However, despite this significance of the education the
participation of women in the field of education is not very satisfactory.
The present paper is based on secondary data obtained from Census of India
2001 and supplemented with State Digest of Statistics and government reports
78
wherever necessary. Women in Jammu and Kashmir suffer disproportionately
in education relative to the men. Women of the state have low literacy rate,
show low enrolment ratio and exhibit high dropout ratio. There is no doubt that
both government and NGO‘s are making serious attempts at resolving gender
inequality in education in education in Jammu in Kashmir, but there is still the
need to make frantic efforts like implementation of Right to Education Act.
Sandhya Rani et al. (2011) presented on “An Analysis of Tribal
Women‟s Education in India”. Education system should make an individual
better suited to the needs of the ever changing dynamic world. The changes in
the educational system should also reduce the social gaps by enabling proper
recognition to whatever extent one is able to pursue or acquire a skill.
The tribal communities all over India have been subjected to various forms of
deprivation such as alienation from land and other resources. Especially the
tribal women though they are away from the main stream of national life, but
they are not kept away from the impact of socio – economic changes effecting
the society in general. In this process of change, the tribal woman is forced to
adhere to certain norms which may even take away her freedom, her control
over the traditional productive system, her house, family and children and even
her own life. The fact remains that a large number of tribal women have missed
education at different stages and in order to empower them there is a great need
of providing opportunities so as to enable them to assume leadership qualities
for economic self-reliance and even social transformation. It is often alleged
that the level of aspiration of these women as a group is low and they are quite
satisfied with what they are and with what they have. It is most often not true
only to womenfolk but to everyone who feels helpless and frustrated. However
in order to develop and raise their level of aspiration, adequate educational
opportunities are to be provided so that they get motivated to participate,
support and also ultimately learn to initiate their own programmes of
development. Therefore, in this paper an attempt has been made to analyze the
present status of educational facilities availed by tribal girls and women. It is
79
also suggested to provide skill and vocational training programmes to tribal
women living in rural areas.
Annie John and Shinde (2012) write on „Educational Status of
Muslim Women in India” in „Review of Research‟. The role of education in
facilitating social and economic progress is well accepted today. The literacy
rate among Muslims in 2001 was far below the national average. Education
contributes to economic growth. Education is a crucial social factor that
initiates the process of social, economic and cultural development of
communities. Muslim girls are among the least educated sections of Indian
society. The Constitution of India in Article 15(1) on right to equality provides
the basic policy framework that enshrines the vision of girls‘ education and the
spirit in which their education is to be provided.
Anugula Reddy (2012) writes on “Financing Elementary Education
in Himachal Pradesh: Lessons Other States can Learn” in „Journal of
Social and Economic Development‟. Himachal Pradesh has been appreciated
for its achievements in universalisation of elementary education in defiance of
conventional labeling common to North India. The latest Public Report on
Basic Education (PROBE) survey describes the persistence of its achievements
as an ongoing schooling revolution. Many explanations like gender parity,
community participation, etc. have been offered for its superior achievements
in school education. This paper looks at financing of elementary education and
the priority accorded to education and elementary education in comparison
with a few select north Indian states. From the comparison, the paper brings out
the high priority accorded to education in Himachal Pradesh to the fore and
argues that it is this priority that enabled other factors to contribute to the
achievement of universal elementary education. The paper asserts that the
lessons to be learned from the experience of Himachal Pradesh precisely lie in
this.
80
Bhunia and Shit (2012) written a paper “Appraisal of Teachers‟ Index
in Primary and Upper Primary Level: a Geospatial Analysis” in „IOSR
Journal of Humanities and Social Science‟. The present study analyses the
teaching-learning environment for educational development of Paschim
Medinipur district, considered as an important segment of social science
research. District Information System for Education (DISE) for the year 2009 –
2010 was used for the present study which has been recorded from the 4,671
primary schools and 751 upper primary schools across the entire district.
To develop a teacher index map pupil-teacher ratio, pupil-female teacher ratio,
school-student ratio, school-teacher ratio, classroom-student ratio, school-
classroom ratio, and the percent of trained teacher was used as influencing
parameters. A relational database was generated on the GIS platform and a
generalized score was given to each parameter to categorize the block to
measures the educational development status. Result of the study showed
average pupil-teacher ratio was 29.31 percent in the district, while the district
had 24.43 percent female teachers at primary level and 29.42 percent at upper
primary level. Results also illustrated that school-teacher ratio (rho – 0.52),
school-student ratio (rho – 0.44), school-classroom ratio (rho – 0.60) showed
positive and significant relationship with the average per cent of passed
student. However, blocks of the eastern part of the district are attaining highest
facility compare to the western part at both the primary and upper primary
level. These efforts on the part of pioneering teachers are to be acclaimed—
they have helped to demonstrate that powerful analytic tools can be made
accessible to students.
Byatappanavar et al. (2012) published a paper on “Government
Educational Programmes: Problems and Suggestions” in „Karnataka
Journal of Agricultural Sciences‟. Access to primary education is being
provided through massive programmes like Sarva Shikshana Abhiyana to all
those children who are involved in physical labor, street children, migrating
children etc. In spite of this, a few children are still deprived of Primary
81
Education due to inability of the parents to send their children to school due to
their poor economical status and sending their children to school means-
incurring extra financial burden on them. Hence, the study was undertaken to
know the problems and suggestions about selected 15 educational schemes in
six villages in Haveri district of Karnataka. The results revealed that majority
of stakeholders had problem of proper treatment by the doctors (91.96%) with
respect to free health checkup scheme followed by insufficient scholarship and
irregularity in distribution of scholarship money (84.92%). Most of the officers
of education department mentioned problem that government do not release
fund in time (46.15%). Cent per cent of parents suggested to distribute
scholarship amount in time with increased amount and good treatment by the
doctor. Most of the students suggested for regular attendance of parents and
nominated members in meetings of samudhayadatta shale scheme (83.33%).
More than 86 per cent of teachers suggested regularity in attending the
meetings by parents and nominated members. Eighty per cent of the
community leaders suggested, making the parents aware of education in
coolienda shalege scheme (labor to school). Majority of the officers of
education department suggested that awareness camps should be conducted for
community people (84.61%).
Dinesh Das and Minakshee Pathak (2012) writes a paper entitled
“Tackling the Millennium Development Goals: Reducing the Gender
Disparity in Primary and Secondary Education in India” in „International
Journal of Scientific and Research Publications‟. The paper makes an
attempt to explain the aim of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): to
eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education to be achieved
by 2015, with special emphasis on girls‘ position. The Challenge of the
Millennium Development Goals was to provide children with access to primary
education either through formal or informal systems, and to reduce differences
in enrolment, drop out rates and mainstream a gender perspective in the
development process. Special measures needed to be adopted to eradicate
82
discrimination at the primary and secondary stages, universalization of
education and creation of a gender sensitive education system.
Farzana Afridi et al. (2012) published a working paper entitled
“Female Labour Force Participation and Child Education in India: The
Effect of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme”. It revealed
the impact of India‘s National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS)
on children‘s educational outcomes via women‘s labour force participation.
Using data from the Young Lives Study and taking advantage of the spatial and
temporal variation in the intensity of implementation of the NREGS, we find
that greater participation of mothers in the program is associated with better
educational outcomes of their children. Father‘s participation in the NREGS,
on the other hand, has a negative effect on children‘s education. Further, the
estimated impact of mother‘s program participation is over and above any
income effect induced by the scheme and is robust to concerns about
endogeneity of labour force participation and differences in economic trends
between districts. We provide evidence which suggests that the mechanism
through which children‘s educational outcomes improve is empowerment of
mothers resulting from better labour market opportunities for females.
Ghazala Parveen Abbasi and Ahmad Saeed (2012) published an article
entitled “Critical Analysis of the Factors influencing Female Education in
Rural Sindh as viewed by Primary School Teachers” in „Interdisciplinary
Journal of Contemporary Research in Business‟. The status of women can
be improved through quality education. Women must have equal access to
education. Girls are forced into house work at the early ages of five to six
years. Girls are often not enrolled in schools, due to various factors. Even if
they are enrolled; their attendance is irregular or they drop out early.
The purpose of the study was to investigate the factors influencing female
education in province of Sindh. It further examined the major barriers and
troubles faced by female population, who have quest for knowledge. The study
83
would help to take adequate steps to improve the conditions related to female
education in rural Sindh.
Rupan Basumatary (2012) published an article entitled “School
Dropout across Indian States and UTs: An Econometric Study” in
„International Research Journal of Social Sciences‟. School dropout
depends upon various factors such as poverty level, distance of school from
home, transport facilities, quality of teachers, social environment and many
other factors. The present study is a quantitative analysis of school dropout
rate, which is regressed on various variables referred to as factors here.
The data for school dropout rates and many other variables across Indian states
and UTs are considered for the session 2009-10. The study found statistically
significant impact of state poverty level and the rural populations.
Sarwar (2012) published a paper “Christian Missionaries and Female
Education in Bengal during East India Company‟s Rule: a Discourse
between Christianized Colonial Domination versus Women
Emancipation” in „IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science‟.
The paper shows the role of distinct western missionaries who were bringing
Christianity in Colonized India as a path of female education, which implanted
values of reformations, and individual‘s right among the natives. These
missionaries under the banner of Civilizing Mission of White Men instructed
some modernizing process to the females of India within the framework of the
Acceptance of Imperial British Rule‗. In particular, the author examined the
role of distinguished devotees and private organizations of European
Missionaries engaged in imparting female education in Bengal. Other hand, the
author have tried to assess the way of responses of Bengali girls and women to
the New Education‗, which they received at the hands of missionary school
masters and schoolmistresses that produced an indigenous debate about
Christian domination versus women emancipation. A very rich and suggestive
literature is now appearing which examines the impact of modern schooling on
Indian women and delineates ideological responses, particularly within Indian
84
nationalist discourse. Finally, an attempt has been made to critically analyze
the ideology and motives of the European women missionaries, and their
limitation to the advancement of female education in Bengal.
Wood (2012) published a paper entitled “Teacher Perceptions of
Gender-Based Differences among Elementary School Teachers” in
„International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education‟. The purpose
of this study was to examine teacher perceptions of gender-based differences
among elementary school teachers. In this mixed-methods study, the researcher
utilized an online survey to collect data. Quantitative analysis revealed no
statistically significant differences; however, qualitative analysis showed that
there were more negative responses to survey statements pertaining to males.
More than half of the participants perceived differences between female and
male elementary teachers, including beliefs that female teachers are more
nurturing, that male teachers are more laid back, and that male teachers are
more dominant and commanding with students. Four conclusions were drawn:
elementary teachers perceive differences between female and male teachers,
male elementary teachers are perceived more negatively than female
colleagues, a vast majority of participants feel that more male elementary
teachers are needed in the elementary schools, and differences between female
and male elementary teachers remain unclear.
Ahmad Kainuwa et al. (2013) published a paper entitled “Cultural
Traditions and Practices of the Parents as Barriers to Girl-Child
Education in Zamfara State Nigeria” in „International Journal of
Scientific and Research Publications‟. This conceptual paper titled the
cultural traditions and practices of the parents as barriers to girl-child education
in Zamfara state Nigeria, aimed at enumerating cultural activities of the parents
in the study area that prevent them from sending their girl children to school.
The paper reviews literature on how cultural traditions practiced by the parents
affect the education of their girl children. The paper also examines the negative
role of parents‘ cultural traditions and practice on the Educational process of
85
their girl children. The study reveals that cultural practices serve as hindrance
to girl-child education and that inaccessibility of the girl-child to education
makes her vulnerable to diseases such as HIV/AIDS, early marriage, denial of
rights and child labour. In addition, studies and researches from the previous
works of scholars relating to the factors militating against girl-child education
were also analyzed and discussed throughout the paper. The discussion in the
paper is base on theoretical framework of ecological model of
Bronfenbrenner‘s theory. This theory is appropriate for the study because it
allows the reader to understand how girl-child education is seriously hampered
by the cultural traditions of their parents. Finally, Suggestions for parents on
how to modernize this cultural traditions and practice to help in the Educational
process of their children were presented. Conclusions from the literature were
drawn, and the paper concludes that Parents‘ cultural practice and tradition
serve as barriers to girl-child education in Zamfara State Nigeria.
Akshay Jain and Ashok Kumar (2013) published an article entitled
“A Survey of Government Polices to Improve the Primary Education in
Rajasthan” in „International Journal of Education and Psychological
Research‟. The main challenge confronting education strategies in Rajasthan is
the education of the girl child, especially among Scheduled Tribes and
Scheduled Castes. Our analysis of primary education in Rajasthan attempts to
identify key issues to strengthen initiatives for universalising literacy and
ensuring quality education that could sustain a pro-poor pattern of growth. In
this paper we are survey the government polices to improving the level of
primary education like Non-Formal Education Program Shiksha Karmi Project
Lok Jumbish Pariyojana Rajiv Gandhi Swarna Jayanti Pathshalas District
Primary Education Programme and their effect of the primary education
slandered.
Chamundeswari (2013) published a paper on “Study Habit, Socio-
economic Status and Academic Achievement of Students at the Secondary
Level” in „Asian Academic Research Journal of Social Science and
86
Humanities‟. The present study investigates the relationship between
study habit, socio-economic status and academic achievement of students.
Survey method is used to select a sample of 381 students at the secondary
level. The Study Habits Inventory is used to assess study habit, Vasanthi‘s
Adaptation of Kuppuswami‘s Socio-economic Scale is used to assess socio
economic status of students and academic achievement marks scored by
students in their quarterly examination were taken for academic achievement
scores. The results of the statistical analyses show a significant correlation
between study habit, socio-economic status and academic achievement of
students. A significant difference is found between study habit, socio-economic
status and academic achievement of students at the secondary level in state,
matriculation and central board schools.
Chaudhary and Aswal (2013) write on “Re-engineering Secondary
Education through Rashtriya Madhyamik Siksha Abhiyan” in „Asian
Academic Research Journal of Social Science and Humanities‟. Ever since
the success of Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE), the Indian
Government has identified the increasing range of users & providers of
secondary education, which has further led to a government programme related
to Universalisation of Secondary Education (USE). This vision under RMSA
(Rashtriya Madhyhamik Siksha Abhiyan) may fulfill the demand-supply issues
in secondary education as envisioned in the XI & XII five year plan.
This article details a purview of Secondary Education in India along with a
discussion on the existing link between UEE & USE. Similarly, it traces a
crucial journey from USE to UHE (Universalisation of Higher Education).
An effort has been made to draw attention towards the existing policy of USE
along with a critical discussion over RMSA. The paper ends with underlining a
need to integrate the different levels of education.
Das Chandra Kanta (2013) published an article on “Parallel
Education System: A Micro-Level Study of Murshidabad District, West
Bengal, India” in „International Research Journal of Social Sciences‟.
87
Education is the basic empowerment tool for the weaker section of society.
Infrastructural development of the schools is getting maximum priority under
the financial assistance from different schemes. But, the quality of education in
the different Govt. aided schools is degraded. As a result of this the parallel
education system like private schools and private tuitions are getting priority in
the society of West Bengal. This parallel system is trying to collapse the school
education system. The present research article brings the ground truth reality
about the emergence of the parallel education system from the point of view of
Murshidabad district in West Bengal.
Dash Anjali (2013) writes on “Relates on Tribal Education and
Health: Evidence from Rural Odisha, India” in „International Research
Journal of Social Sciences‟. Education and health are commonly devolved
functions to sub-national governments, even in nations which have a unitary
rather than a federal structure. Education and health are the two major factors
which are influencing more to the economic development. So without
improvement of these two factors economic development impossible and now a
day India Vs Odisha under privilege Schedule Tribe population are deprive
more in all aspect. What are the main reasons behind their backwardness in
health and education? On behalf of illiteracy health and nutritional
consciousness among these STs Communities are low. Through various
programme government can eradicate diseases. Educated mothers are more
conscious about child health. This study is based on both primary data from a
rural village and secondary data from various report and research review of
research. Main objective of this paper is, to determine impact of education on
health status among primitive tribal people in tribal areas and rural areas. It also
analyses the correlation relationship between health, education and poverty.
Haque et al. (2013) published a paper on “Universal Pre-Primary
Education: A Comparative Study” in „American Journal of Educational
Research‟. Pre-primary education has become popular strategy to protection
drop-out from formal education of children all over the world. Early Childhood
88
Development (ECD) and pre-primary education are widely recognized as
having a significant impact on the performance of children in basic education
programmes. Pre-primary education would ensure a smooth transition to the
primary education and lay the foundation for lifelong learning. Development of
a child begins within the family and mostly depends on the parents. Educated
parents are able to prepare their child for the smooth entry into formal
education but no doubt uneducated parents are unable to do this. To apposite
develop of a country education is crying need. So protection drop-out from
formal education of child is most necessary for a nation. For this reason pre-
primary education is especially important for a nation. In this article we have
investigated the role of various governments such as India, Argentina, Nigeria,
EU countries etc in pre-primary schooling. Our main objective in this paper is
to study, analyze and compare the activities of the government of Bangladesh
and NGOs in pre-primary sector with others mentioned above. This paper
focuses on the importance of pre-primary schooling in Bangladesh with respect
of others developed and under developed countries.
Kakoli and Sayeed (2013) in their paper “Educational Progress in India in
the Context of Out-of-School Children” published in „International Research
Journal of Social Sciences‟, examined the level of out-of-school children in India
from the most recent nationally representative household survey. The study aims to
answer two key questions; first, what is the level of out-of-school children in India
and second, what are the factors that keep children out-of-school. The analysis
suggested that although there had been a decline in out-of-school children but,
significant proportions of children still could not attend school. The study suggested
that the urban poor had the highest probability to be out-of-school, but the presence of
adult literate female in the household increased likelihood of enrolment. The study
further suggested that the economic condition of the household had highest
contribution to out-of-school children. The study also observed that the reasons for
never attended school or dropout differ for male and female while boys had to provide
financial assistance to the family, girls performed household activities.
89
Majumder and Mondal (2013) published an article entitled “What are
the Causes of Drop out among the Primary School Children? A Study on
the Indo-Bangladesh Border Region” in „International Journal of
Innovative Research & Studies‟. The Right of Education Act came into effect
on 1st April 2010 which ensures free and compulsory education to every child
between the ages 6-14 years. ―Free Education‖ means that no child, other than
a child who has been admitted by his or her parents to a school which is not
supported by the appropriate Government, shall be liable to pay any kind of fee
or charges. On the other hand, ―Compulsory Education‖ casts an obligation on
the appropriate Government and local authorities to provide and ensure
admission, attendance and completion of elementary education by all children
in the 6-14 age groups. India is currently having 8.1 million eligible students
who are either dropouts or have never gone to school. Therefore, bringing them
back to school can be considered as one of the major challenges in
implementing Right to Education (RTE). In this paper, the authors have
undertaken a field based study in an anchal (Ramnagar) which is situated near
Indo-Bangladesh Border of East site of India. The findings of this study mainly
revealed that the causes of primary level school drop outs.
Monika Seth and Ghormade (2013) published a paper “The Impact of
Authoritative Parenting Style on Educational Performance of Learners at
High School Level” in „International Research Journal of Social Sciences‟.
Educational performance gets affected by a number of factors such as
intelligence, achievement, motivation, home environment, school environment,
interest and resources. The most significant influence on child is his or her
parents. Psychologists and educationists are of the opinion that child rearing
practices have the direct bearing on the educational performance of children.
In this competitive era, where every parent expects that his child should do well
at school, it is necessary to understand how different parenting styles determine
the child‘s educational performance at school. In the twenty first century of
competition, every student is expected to be higher achiever and up to the
90
expectations of parents and teachers. At present, though we assume that the
educational performance of students at high school level is influenced by
varying degree by the parenting styles, there are a few empirical studies
available in this regard to clearly establish to what extent the particular
parenting style determines or influences the educational performance of a child
at this level of learning. This study has tried to fill in this gap between
Authoritative parenting style and their impact on educational performance of
learners at high school level.
Prasanta Saikia and Arindam Sarma (2013) published an article
“Impact of Education on Fertility: A Case Study of Bodo Women in
Sonitpur District, Assam” in „Online International Interdisciplinary
Research Journal‟. Fertility behaviour is not merely a demographic variable
but rather a product of several socio-economic and cultural factors. There are
several factors affecting fertility and thus it is resultant of many such factors.
These factors include biological factors, physiological factors, indirect social
factors, direct factors and other social factors. The present study aims at
exploring the relationship between women education and fertility. The study
led to the findings that education does acts as an important factor in lowering
down the rate of fertility which mostly operates through some intervening
variables that determine the ideological demand for children, social prestige,
costs of rearing and education. In this present study we discuss only social
factors (education). The main objective of this paper is to see how the
educational status of the Bodo women plays a crucial role in determining the
fertility rate of the women.
Bhandari (2014) written a paper entitled “An Analysis of Women
Education in India” in „Educationia Confab‟. Education has been regarded
both as an end and a means of realizing other desirable goals. It develops the
personality and rationality of individuals, qualifies them to fulfill certain
economic, political and cultural functions and thereby improves socio-
economic status. It has been recognized as a major instrument, which societies
91
can use to direct the process of change and development towards desired goals.
The movements for improving the women‘s‘ status all over the world has also
emphasized. Education is considered the most significant instrument for
changing women‘s‘ subjugated position in the society. Education has been
recognized as one of the most important tools of empowerment. But in spite of
various policies and programmes initiated by government for girls‘ education
and education to all, still India has a population of illiterate females.
The present paper highlights the status of women education in Indian context.
Daragad and Venkat Lakshmi (2014) writes on “Factors influencing
Social Skills and Behaviour among School Children” in „Asian Academic
Research Journal of Social Science and Humanities‟. Social skills are the
tool for social behavior and effective communication. Social skills and
behavior play a pivot role in influencing the holistic development of children
from early years of life and more so during the formative years of school, since
school is the platform where teaching and learning takes place. The objective
of the study was to assess the factors influencing social skills and behavior
among school children from Dharwad district of Karnataka State. The sample
for the present study consisted of 72 school going children in the age bracket of
6-12 years and attending Government schools. Self –structured tool developed
by the investigator was used to elicit information from the subjects.
The subjects were selected for the present study through random sampling
method. The findings of the study revealed that there is a significant difference
between the age and social skills and behavior of school children. The ordinal
position had a non- significant influence on social skills and behavior in school
children. The study also highlighted that, type of family and religion does
influence the social skills and behavior. The study highlighted the need for
enhancing the social skills and behavior of school children through
comprehensive intervention program for better interpersonal relationship.
92
Meenakshi Girdhar (2014) published paper on “Positive Psychology in
Indian Society and Education System” in „ZENITH International Journal
of Multidisciplinary Research‟. The present paper encompasses the scope of
positive psychology in coping with several issues prevalent in today‘s Indian
society and education system. With increasing trends of globalization,
modernization, individualistic survival, materialistic attitude, instability in
Indian market and economy, current recession, increase in population,
decreasing of resources, wider gap between rich and poor; there is a
simultaneous augmentation in depression, anxiety, stress, drug abuse and
suicidal rate among Indian youth. Loss of humanity is manufacturing alienated
youth in employment market working as machine with machines, day and
night. WHO‘s World Mental Health Survey (27th
July, 2011) has reported India
as the highest among number of depressive cases in world. In education
system, approach towards inclusive education, quota to students of
economically weaker section, erosion of boards at secondary level, intrusion of
grading system without proper mind set- up and preparation is creating an
environment of confusion and hallucination. Teachers are not guided and
counseled to handle the situation resulting strain and hampered work
efficiency. The paper reviews the effective ways positive psychology can
introduce in the life of teacher and taught to work efficiently and lead a life full
of enthusiasm and happiness.
Rengma and Jha (2014) published a paper on “Impact of
Communitisation on Elementary Education: An Analysis” in ‗ZENITH
International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research‟. Communitisation in
Nagaland started as a unique partnership between the government and the
community involving transfer of ownership of public resources and assets,
control over service delivery, empowerment, decentralisation, delegation and
capacity building for improving the delivery of public utility systems. A study
was conducted with an objective to assess the impact of Communitisation on
elementary education in Tseminyu block of Nagaland. Respondents were
93
selected based on random selection procedure. Data were collected using pre
tested schedule by conducting personal interview. Data analysis was done
using SYSTAT 12 software. The findings revealed that Village Education
Committee constituted under communitisation of education was successful to
manage, direct, supervise and control the primary schools ensuring
administrative, academic and financial discipline. The study revealed that
impact of communitisation resulted in more number of enrolment of male as
well as female students, increased attendance percentage of teachers and
students and quantum gain in pass percentage of the students. There was an
overall improvement in the punctuality, discipline and participation of students
in extra co-curricular activities. Parents also gained confidence in management
of education system and a sense of belongingness by participation in the
decision making process.
94
2.3. References:
1. Ahmad Kainuwa et al. (2013): Cultural Traditions and Practices of the
Parents as Barriers to Girl-Child Education in Zamfara State Nigeria.
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications.
Vol. 3. No. 11. November 2013. P. 1-8.
2. Akshay Jain and Ashok Kumar (2013): A Survey of Government
Polices to Improve the Primary Education in Rajasthan. International
Journal of Education and Psychological Research. Vol. 2. No. 3.
August 2013. P. 133-142.
3. Alaka Malwade Basu (2002): Why does Education Lead to Lower
Fertility? A Critical Review of Some of the Possibilities. World
Development. Vol. 30. No. 10. 2002. P. 1779-1790.
4. Anand, Mily Roy and Yadav, Mona (2006): The inclusion of SC girls in
Education: A long path ahead. Social Change. Vol. 36. No. 4.
December 2006. P. 114-130.
5. Annie John and Shinde, SV (2012): Educational Status of Muslim Women
in India. Review of Research. Vol. 1. No. 6. March 2012. P. 1-4.
6. Anugula Reddy (2012): Financing Elementary Education in Himachal
Pradesh: Lessons Other States can Learn. Journal of Social and Economic
Development. Vol. 14. No. 2. July-December 2012. P. 181-201.
7. Ashiq Hussain, et al. (2011): Causes of Students‘ Dropout at Primary Level
in Pakistan: An Empirical Study. International Journal of Humanities and
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