chapter ii review of related literature 2. 1 review of

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2. 1 Review of Related Literature

These are some references related to translation shifts as so as to support this

analysis.

Bonaedy (2007) in Pergeseran Bentuk pada Penerjemahan Frase Nominal Bahasa

Perancis ke dalam Bahasa Indonesia. The thesis Discusses about shifts in France novel

“L’Ingnu” created by Voltaire translated into Bahasa Indonesia by Ida Sundari Husen as

“Si Lugu”. The theory which used in the thesis is Nida & Taber theory of translation in the

theory and practice of translation, Shift by Catford in Linguistic theory of translation and

Noun Phrases theory in France language by Jean Louis Chiss, Jacques Filliolet, &

Dominic Mainueneau in Linguistique Francaise Initiation a La Problematique

Structurale: Syntaxe, Communication, Poetique. From the analysis, the writer found in

noun phrases from France Language into Bahasa Indonesia occurs in Class shift, Unit shift

and Structure shift.

Simanjuntak (2011), “an Analysis of Word Shifts in Sherlock Holmes' Movie

Subtitle”. This thesis analyzes the shift word (word-shifts) that occurs in the subtitling of

Sherlock Holmes movie. This analysis focused to find the shift of the word (word-shifts)

to another level in the subtitle from English into Indonesian. The theory is used to identify

the shift is a theory which stated by Catford 1965 that shift happening in language units in

any appropriate level. From the analysis that has been done, found 130 with 3 types of

shifts said shift; 117 a shift from words to phrases, or 90%, and 13 shift from word to

clause or 9.23%, and 1 shift, or 0.77% of the word to the sentence .

Sahrial (2003) in An Analysis of Grammatical Unit in the Translation of John

Grisham’s the Street Lawyer to Pengacara Jalanan sums up that the grammatical unit

occurs due to the differences in language system and grammatical structure between

Source Language (SL) and Target Language (TL).

Pasaribu (2009) Functional Shift in the Translation of “guidelines for The Better

Universitas Sumatera Utara

Management Practice and Avoidance, Mitigation and Management of Human-Orangutan

Conflict in and Around Oil Palm Plantation” in Bahasa Indonesia, discusses one of the

subs category shifts, namely functional shifts. She comes to a conclusion that shifts can be

found in any kinds of translation.

2.2. Translation

2.2.1 Definition of Translation

In universal point of view, translation is a matter of transferring something from

one language to another language.

However, translation is not merely about transferring message or something, and

Catford (1969:20) clarifies that translation deals with equivalence issue. “Translation is

the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in

another language (TL)”.

Making an equivalent translation both in meaning and structure seems impossible.

Keeping the structure equal will make the translation too literal. Meanwhile to make an

equivalent meaning means we have to re-adjust or reconstruct the structure. Furthermore,

Translation with an equal structure is useless without equivalent meaning. Larson (1984:3)

supporting Catford‟s theory, states that translation means transferring the meaning of the

source language into receptor language. Moreover, Newmark in Machalli (2009:25) give

more briefly statement about meaning in translation, he says “rendering the meaning of a

text in to another language in the way the author intended the text”.

Moreover, translation also deals with culture aspects. Professor in linguistic and

literature Harimurti Kridalaksana (1983:128) on his book, he states that translation is

transferring message among cultures or among languages in grammatical and lexical point

by preserving the message, effect or structure as possible as it can be. In his book, he

writes, “Terjemahan ialah pengalihan amanat antarbudaya dan/atau antarbahasa

dalam tataran gramatikal dan leksikal dengan maksud, efek atau wujud yang sedapat


mungkin tetap dipertahankan”. In brief, he views translation as transferring message

which across culture among languages

2.2.2. Functions of Translation

Basically, translation functions as communication tools. As Nida (1969:12) states,

“Translation means communication because it has three essential elements to form a

process of communication. The three essential elements are source, message, and receptor,

and these elements must be found in all communication activities”. In brief words,

translation means inter-lingual communication by involving two different languages.

Moreover, Duff (1989: 5) says, “As a process of communication, translation

functions as the medium „across the linguistic and cultural barriers‟ in conveying the

messages written in the foreign languages”. In other words, the function of translation is as

a bridge to carry the messages (meanings) and get the same understanding among

language.

2.2.3. Process of Translation

Nida and Taber (1969) in Munday (2001:40) divide the process of translating into

three stages system: 1) analysis of message in the SL; 2) transfer, and; 3) reconstruction of

the transferred message in the TL. This process is described in the following figure.

A (Source Language) B (Receptor Language)

(Analysis) (Restructuring)

X (transfer) Y

Diagram of translation process


From the diagram, we can see that the source language is analyzing the

grammatical relationship and the meaning of words and its combination. Then it

transferred the meaning from SL into TL. The Reconstruction phase is the phase where the

translator rewrites or re-expresses the materials in such a way that the translation product

is readable and acceptable in terms of rules and styles in the TL.

Furthermore, Nababan (2003:25) writes that “Proses penerjemahan terdiri atas

tiga tahap, yaitu 1) analisis teks bahasa sumber (Bsu), 2) pengalihan pesan, 3

restrukturisasi.” The process of translation have three steps, those are 1) the analysis of

the source language (SL), 2) transferring the message, 3) restructuring.

2.2.4. Types of Translation.

Catford (1965:21) formulates categories of translation into three parts, namely

extent, levels, and rank of translation. Based on the extent, he categorizes translation into a

full translation and a partial translation. Based on levels of translation, he classifies

translator in terms of total and restricted translation whilst on the ranks there are bound

and unbounded translation.

In the case of full translation, the whole text is submitted to the process of

translation, namely each part of the SL text is submitted by text material. According to

Catford (1965:21), text is any stretch of language, spoken or written, which is under

discussion and according to circumstances, a text may be a whole library of books, a

single volume, a chapter, a paragraph, a sentence, a clause, etc. In contrast with full

translation, a partial translation is some parts of the SL text are left un-translated. They are

merely transferred to the target language text. In a literary translation, it is unusual for

some SL lexical items to be treated that way.

Larson (1984:15) divided translation into two types, they are:

1. Literal translation is a form-based translation attempting to follow the form of the

source language. For example:


Source Language Text Target Language Text

Tell me, I am not in a cage now Beritahu aku, aku tidak berada didalam

gua sekarang

2. Idiomatic translation is a meaning-based translation that makes ever effort to

communicate the meaning of the source language text in the natural form of the

receptor language. For example:

Source Language Text Target Language Text

Tell me, I am not in a cage now Ayo, beri aku semangat bahwa sekarang

aku tidak terkurung.

Baker and Saldanha in divided translation into four types; literary translation,

audiovisual translation, scientific translation and technical translation.

http://books.google.co.id/books/about/Routledge_Encyclopedia_of_Translation_St.htmli

d=eXsDckV5GuMC&redir_esc=y/ (Accessed on January 10th

2014)

1. Literary Translation

Literary translation is the translation of texts within the field of literature.

Translation of literary works (novels, short stories, plays, poems, etc.) is

considered a literary pursuit in its own right. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

literary_translation/ (Accessed on January 10th

2014)

2. Audiovisual Translation

As Luyken (1991:153–165), Audiovisual Translation is the translation of any

material in audio, visual or audiovisual format. The four major aspects that are

included in this section are subtitling, dubbing, software localization and

multimedia, and audio description.

3. Scientific translation


Ghazzala (1995:75) define Scientific translation is mainly about translating terms

in the field of scients and technology of all kinds, medicine, physics, chemistry,

mathematics, computer sciences, etc from one language into another.

4. Technical Translation

Technical translation is a type of specialized translation involving the translation

of documents produced by technical writers (owner's manuals, user guides, etc.),

or more specifically, texts which relate to technological subject areas or texts

which deal with the practical application of scientific and technological

information. http:// en. wikipedia.org/wiki/ Technical_translation/ (Accessed on

January 10th

2014)

2.3 Shifts

As stated by Catford in Venuti (2000 : 141), shifts are departures from formal

correspondence in the process of going from the source language (SL) to the target

language (TL). He also classifies the shifts into two major types, namely level shift and

category shift.

2.3.1 Level Shift

In brief, Catford in Venuti (2000 : 141) define level shift as a shift from a

grammatical unit in SL to a lexical unit in TL. For instance, in the case of English and

Bahasa Indonesia, a grammatical unit in English (for example: affixes, noun, verb, and

others) has a lexical unit in Bahasa Indonesia. The followings are the examples of level

shift:

(a) Boni has sold his motorcycle.

(b) Boni sudah menjual sepeda motornya.

In sentence above, English auxiliary „has‟ comes together with past participle of

„sell‟ (sold). The auxiliary „have” in English is translated into „sudah‟, a lexis in Bahasa


Indonesia.

2.3.2 Category Shift

The second types of shift, is category shift, it is referred to unbounded and rank-

bound translation. Unbounded translation means that translation equivalences may occur

between sentences, clauses, groups, words and morphemes. While the term rank-bound

translation only to refer to those special cases where equivalence is limited to ranks below

the sentence.

In the group of category shift, there are four shifts. They are structure-shifts, class-

shifts, unit-shifts, and intra-system-shifts.

1. Structure-Shifts

Structure shift is about the changing of grammatical structure between the SL and

the TL, because of the structure of English to Indonesian language is different. For

example:

The form of the noun phrase of SL is Modifier-Head, while the form of the noun

phrase of TL is Head-Modifier.

new car → mobil baru

Adj N N Adj

2. Class or Functional Shifts

In brief, Catford (1965) in Venuti (2000 : 145) views class-shifts as shifts

occurred when the equivalent translation of a SL item is a component of a different class

in TL. For instance:

a. medical student

Adj. N

b. mahasiswa kedokteran


N N

3. Unit-shifts

Unit shifts is about change of rank. In which the equivalent translation of a unit at

one rank in the SL is a unit at a different rank in the TL.

For example:

Shift from phrase to word

Excuse me → permisi

P W

4. Intra-system-shifts

The last shifts, intra-system-shifts, are the shifts occurring internally within the

system of the language concerned. The system involves a selection of a non-

corresponding word in the system of TL. An example of this is:

(a). a pair of scissors

N (+plural)

(b). sebuah gunting

N (singular)

It is obviously seen from the example above that though we have a corresponding

plural form of „scissors‟ (for example, through repetition of the word „gunting‟ in Bahasa

Indonesia), system in Bahasa Indonesia needs the use of the singular form of „a pair”.

2.4 Five Units of Ranks in English

Halliday (1985) in Machali (1998:13) identifies five units representing ranks in

English, namely sentence, clause, group (or phrase), word, and morpheme.

1. Sentence


Sentence is a set of words expressing a statement, a question, or an order, usually

containing a subject and a verb.

For example: I was sitting around my house when that truck hitting a tree.

2. Clause

Clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb, and forms a sentence or part

of a sentence. If the clause could stand by itself, and form a complete sentence with

punctuation, we call the clause an independent clause.

For example: I was sitting around my home

Dependent clauses have a subject doing a verb, but they have a subordinate conjunction

placed in front of the clause. That subordinate conjunction means that the clause can't

stand independently by itself and become a complete sentence. Instead, the dependent

clause is dependent upon another clause--it can't make a complete sentence by itself, even

though it has a subject doing a verb. For examples of dependent clauses

For example: When that truck hitting a tree

These clauses simply do not form complete thoughts or sentences by themselves, but the

combination of independent and dependent clauses will make a complete sentence.

3. Group (Phrase)

A phrase is a small group of words that adds meaning to a word. In some cases, phrase

is a group of words containing a certain meaning if they are used together. There are

five kinds of phrase, namely noun phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, verb phrase,

and prepositional phrase.

3.1). Noun phrase

In a noun phrase, one or more words work together to give more information

about a noun.

For example. „ big black beauty motorcycle ‟.


Adj adj adj Noun

The example above is an illustration of noun phrase where a noun „motorcycle‟

is modified by three adjectives „big‟, „black‟, and „beauty‟.

3.2). Adjective phrase

Adjective phrase is the adjective in a group of words.

For example: these shoes is extremely expensive

Modifier Adjective

3.3). Adverb phrase

adverb which done by „a group of words‟. In the following sentences, the first

sentence and the second sentence in a pair convey the same meaning but using

adverb in the first sentence and adverb-phrase in the second sentence.

For example: He does his work carelessly.

He does his work without care.

3.4).Verb phrase.

a group of words including a verb and its complements, objects, or other

modifiers that functions syntactically as a verb. Or briefly one or more words

work together to give more meaning to a verb. In English a verb phrase combines

with a noun or noun phrase acting as subject to form a simple sentence.

For example: big motorcycle running faster’.

3.5). Prepositional phrase


In a prepositional phrase, one or more words work together to give

information about time, location, or possession, or condition. The preposition

always appears at the front of the phrase

For example: “behind the old building‟

Prepositional modifier noun

4. Word

unit of language, consisting of one or more spoken sounds or their written representation,

that functions as a principal carrier of meaning.

For example: Small

5. Morpheme

A meaningful linguistic unit consisting of a word or a word element that can't be divided

into smaller meaningful parts.

For example: Dogs

The word „Dogs‟ consists of two morphemes and one syllable; „Dog‟ to represent noun

and syllable „-s‟ to represent plural.

Those units of language are found in Bahasa Indonesia as well (Machali, 1998

:13). The recognition of their distribution, status, and meaning are not similar in Bahasa

Indonesia.

2.5 Subtitle

Subtitle as branch of audiovisual translation is textual versions of the dialog or

commentary in films, television programs, video games, usually displayed at the bottom of

the screen. They can either be a form of written translation of a dialog in a foreign

language, or a written rendering of the dialog in the same language, with or without added

information to help viewers who are deaf and hard-of-hearing to follow the dialog, or


people who cannot understand the spoken dialogue or who have accent recognition

problems. http://en. Wikipedia. Org/wiki/subtitle/ (Accessed on January, 19th 2014; 04:39

PM).

2.5.1 Subtitle Rules

William (2009:7-10), Senior Content Producer BBC listed rules in making

standard subtitle for movie screen:

1. Subtitles must be on screen for long enough to be read by a deaf or hard-of-

hearing viewer who will also be trying to take in other visual information at the same time.

1. A short and familiar word or phrase - 1.12 to 2 seconds.

e.g.: Hello .

or: Excuse me.

2. Up to half a line - 2 to 2.12 seconds.

e.g.: Where do you live?

or: See you tomorrow.

3. One line - 2.12 to 3 seconds.

e.g.: How long will it take us to go home?

or: He's got a real headache.

4. One line and a little bit - 3.12 seconds.

e.g.: How long will it take Johanna to go

home?

5. Up to one and a half lines - 4 to 4.12 seconds.

e.g.: It is important to tell her about

the decision we made.


6. Two lines - 5 to 6 seconds.

e.g.: I think it would be a very good idea

to keep dangerous dogs on a leash.

7. Two lines and a little bit - 6.12 seconds.

e.g.: How long will it take the whole cast

to come home by taxi to Duals, North

Dyfed?

8. Two and a half lines - 7 seconds.

e.g.: The best thing about going abroad is

that you don't have to put up with

the British weather .

9. Three lines - 7.12 to 8 seconds.

e.g.: What will the City do about the Tory

Government's humiliating defeat

in the House of Commons last night?

2. In both live and pre-recorded subtitling, timings are intended to be flexible. The

standard timings shown in the Appendix are intended to provide general guidelines.

3. It is crucial that subtitles are displayed for a sufficient length of time for viewers to

read them. The subtitle presentation rate for pre-recorded programmes should not

normally exceed 140 words per minute. In exceptional circumstances, for example in the

case of add-ons, the higher rate of 180 words per minute is permitted.

4. To ensure both legibility and readability, the maximum for subtitle text should be

roughly 32 or 34 characters per line.


5. Lines should be broken at logical points. The ideal line-break will be at a piece of

punctuation like a full stop, comma or dash. If the break has to be elsewhere in the

sentence, avoid splitting the following parts of speech

6. Good line-breaks are extremely important because they make the process of

reading and understanding far easier. However, it is not always possible to produce good

line-breaks as well as well-edited text and good timing. Where these constraints are

mutually exclusive, then well edited text and timing are more important than line-breaks.

7. If the text will fit on one line, do not rearrange it on to two lines. One line takes

less time to read than two short lines and it causes less disruption to the picture. Similarly,

do not rearrange two lines of text on to three lines, unless there is a very bad line-break

between lines 1 and 2.


chapter ii review of related literature 2. 1 review of

Documents