CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

SECTION I: MONUMENTS - A CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK

What does Monument mean?

Types of Monuments

Kinds of Monuments

Monuments in Tamilnadu

SECTION II: TEMPLES - A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

What does Temple mean?

Trends in Temple Construction

Structure of a Temple

Economic Significance of Temples

Social Significance of Temples

Educational Significance of Temples

Selected Temples in Tamilnadu

SECTION III: FORTS - A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

What does Fort Mean?

Types of Forts

Structure of a Fort

Economic Significance of Forts

Social Significance of Forts

Educational Significance of Forts

Selected Forts in Tamilnadu

SECTION IV: PALACES - A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

What does Palace Mean?

Structure of a Palace

Economic Significance of Palaces

Social Significance of Palaces

Educational Significance of Palaces

Selected Palaces in Tamilnadu

SECTION V: HISTORY CURRICULUM IN SCHOOLS -A CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK

What is History?

What does Curriculum Mean?

Objectives of Teaching History

History Curriculum at School Level

SECTION VI: RELATED STUDIES

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In this chapter is given an account of the related

literature under six sections as noted below.

SECTION I : MONUMENTS - A CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK

SECTION II TEMPLES - A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

SECTION III : FORTS - A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

SECTION IV : PALACES - A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

SECTION V : HISTORY CURRICULUM IN SCHOOLS -A CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK

SECTION VI : RELATED STUDIES

SECTION I: MONUMENTS - A CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK

WHAT DOES MONUMENT MEAN?

Monument means, it is well known, anything of that

preserves the memory of an event or a person.

It is also defined that monument is any structure as a

Lomb-stone building, tablet errected to the memory of a

person or an event, an ancient record and any achievement of

lasting value.

Some view that monuments are tomb building in memory of

dead-man.

In other sense, monument is considered as to build

something in stone. It has always been a favourite way of

keeping alive the memory of a person and an event.

Some times monument building serves a practical purpose

as well - for example the pyramids of Egypt were both the

monuments to the kings who built them and coverings to their

tombs.

Some times a monument has no purpose beyond the

embellishment of a public place.

Greek monuments most commonly took the form of statues.

There were also sculptured tombs, small Monuments

commemorating the winners of athletic and musical contests.

Monument of Lysicrats (B.C.335) is the best example.

Roman people commemorated their great men and their

military victories by errecting monuments.

Arc-De-Triumph in Paris was erected in 1806 AD. The

Marble Arch London originally stood at the entrance of

Buckingham Palace, which is the adoption of the Roman Triple

Arch type.

Thus monument means the symbol of memory of any

phenomenon.

TYPES OF MONUMENTS

Statues, Fountains, Tombs, Triumphal Arches, Pillars of

Victories, Temples, Forts, Architectural Buildings, Musical

:ii

Pillars, Encarved Caves, Churches, Mosques and Palaces are

considered as the different types of monuments.

KINDS OF MONUMENTS

Monuments could be classified as the monuments under the

earth and the monuments on the surface of the earth.

Monuments under the earth are found out by the efforts

of the Archaeological officials. The great ruined cities

like Mohanjadaro and Harappa had been found from the earth.

They served to understand the ancient conditions of the

people.

During the metal age, the people burned their dead in

big jars called Mudhumakkal Thalis with things used for

performing their last rites. Over the Mudhumakkal Thalis,

stone monuments were also errected.

Other archaeological findings tell us that these people

burned the dead and worshipped their Gods with rituals.

Monuments in Tamilnadu reveal the evergreen memory of a

person or an event. Tamilnadu has a lot of monuments from the

early period to date. From the Sangam Age, it is notable,

the statues made of granite stone, victory arches and victory

pillars are considered as the best monuments that we have.

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Literally it is clear that for adorning the adventurous

deed of the warriors in the battle field, there built

braveous stone, in Tamil word Veerakal or Nadukal in the

heart of the city or village.

The great Tamil Epic Silappadhikaram speaks about the

Chera king Neduncheraladhan's Northern expedition upto

Himalayas to bring stone to erect a statue for Kannaki Devi

or Mangala Devi and he built a temple at Pathinikottam on the

top of Elakicaimalai. The Chola King Karikalan built the

Kallanai Dam on the river Kaveri near Trichirapalli.

Through the monuments dotted in Tamilnadu, one can

understand the political, social, economic, religious and

cultural conditions of the State.

The primary purpose of monuments in learning History is

to give definitions or forms to visual imaginary. Monuments

are direct representations of reality and make their own

appeal to the eyes. With clear visualisation, the primary

purpose of monuments in the History is fulfilled. The sense

of reality is emphasised, monuments stimulate imaginary as

well as thought, observation, analysis, comparison and

classification of data.

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The natural tastes and interests of the students can be

inferred from psychology, they can be observed in operation

and they can be tested by experiments.

Monuments play a vital role in learning History.

History should begin with what is near in time and space and

produced by gradual state to what is remote. One can learn

History by observing the monuments placed near his village or

city. Then the subject matter could be developed to the

world level to what is the remote.

MONUMENTS IN TAMILNADU

The traces of the people of pre historic period in

Tamilnadu are to be seen in the stone implements and

Kistvaens or grave or Megalithic grave found in some

districts of Tamilnadu.

Archaeological findings found in Athichanallur in

Tuticorin District is considered as the biggest findings in

Tamilnadu. Iron implements and ornamentals made of gold and

broze were found here. Such findings were found at

Pallavaram, Korrali (near Madras) and Vada Madurai.

The Kistvaens or Megalithic graves consist of chambers

usually 6 feet long, 4 feet broad and 3 feet deep walled,

roofed and floored with large slabs of roughly hewn stone and

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sometimes surrounded by one or more circles of stone slaps

set up on. Inside the graves are generally found bone,

pottery and weapons made of iron. It is doubtful that these

are the tombs of the chieftains.

Megalithic grave had two types, the one was cave circle

and the another convex circle.

Carbon 14, the chemical test proves the age of these

graves as 1000 B.C.

These graves are found in Sangam Medu in South Arcot

District and in Chanur, Amirthamangalam and Kunnathur (all

three in Chengalput District). It is noted well that

Chengalput District had 200 megalothic graves here and there.

Stone age precious gems like Agate, Chart and Jaspar are

found in Sawerpuram in Tuticorin District.

From the earliest times, Tamilnadu was strong-hold of

the people of various religions. Hinduism, Buddhism and

Jainism were well influenced in those period. In 5th century

A.D. there was a Sangarama, a Buddhist Vikar in Kanchipuram.

It is also mentioned that there is a Stupa about 100 feet

high built by Asoka Raja.

15

16

Another noted monument of that period was the big

Buddhist monastery built at Kanchipuram by Illankilli, the

brother of the Chola King Todukalar Killi.

There were some hundred Sangaramas, the Buddhist vikars

and 10,000 Buddhist priests in Kanchipuram to propagate

Buddhism among Tamilnadu.

These monuments of Buddhists should have been

constructed by early Pallava Kings who ruled the country at

that time. The revival of Saivism and Vaishnavism is perhaps

the chief cause of the disappearance of Buddhist monuments.

There is no evidence to show the Buddhism was spread in

Tamilnadu before the times of Asoka, the Mouriya Empire of

Megadha. The importance of Buddhism in the ancient Tamilnadu

specially at Tondaimandalam is also testified by Manimekalal,

the great Tamil epic of Seethalai Sathanar. It points out

the names of early Pallava Kings as Buddhavarman and

Buddayakura.

The Himalayan expedition made by Senkuttuvan, the early

Chera King was remarkable and praise worthy. He conquered the

northern kingdoms. He brought a stone from the Himalayas to

make an idol of Kannaki, the embodiment of Chastity. He

defeated enemies, carried this stone on their heads after

purifying it with holy waters of the ganges.

At Pathinikottam, Senkuttuvan built the temple which was

considered as the best monument in the early Tamil History.

Silapathikaram states that temples were erected in several

parts of the Tamil country to enshrine the image of Kannagi.

Karikalan, the well known Chola King, invaded against

Elam (Ceylon) and captured it. He built a well protected

fort at Kaveripattinam, his capital city with the help of the

labour force of 12,000 singalees who were brought to Chola

kingdom after conquering Ceylon.

One of the most importnat ancient customs of Tamilagam

as revealed by the inscriptions is the building of shrines

and temples over the tombs or in honour of the dead.

The Tamil country abounds in hero-stones planted with

inscriptions to celebrate the fame of military men, who have

given their lives in fighting to the last with their enemies

even when the whole army was put to fight thinking it better

to die in battle-field than brooke the ignominy attending a

flight. Similar references to this kind of monuments are

found in Purapporul Venbamalai, Tolgappiyam and

Malaipadukadarn.

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SECTION II: TEMPLES - A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

WHAT DOES TEMPLE MEAN?

It is a well known fact that temples are being

considered as the worshipping place or holy and sacred place.

It is believed that God glorifies His grace to the people.

Aalayam means Atma surrenders or get together in that place.

Temple otherwise is called as Koil. The word koil can be

split into Ko + eil - Ko means living place for God, eil -

living. God living in that place, is Koil.

During the Sangam age, Koil is meant for some important

places, seemed to be a shrine or garbagrika. It is stressed

in the Tamil great epic Sillapathikaram of Ilanyovadikal.

Thirumular, the greatest Sittar, in his work,

"Thjrumanthiram" stresses the view that koil means 'shrine'.

The great Saivasaint Thirunavukkurasar (570-655 AD) supported

this view of Thirumoolar. Laterly, the word 'Thiru' is

added and mentioned as 'Thirukoil'.

In short, temple is a place where God dwells and graces

to the devotees. It is a holy place. It is noted that the

holy place for worshipping is in English having six letters.

The Hindu holy worshipping place is TEMPLE, it has six

letters likely CHURCH, MOSQUE, PAGODA and CHAPEL have six

letters and these are all the holy places to Christ, Islam,

Buddhist and Prayer house of English people respectively.

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Temple means in French, a protestant church, a place

dedicated to God.

TRENDS IN TEMPLE CONSTRUCTION

The ancient people worshipped natural forces like

Thunder, Fire, Rain, Lightening, Sky and Land as God. At

that period there were no temples. In the early period

temples were built as a human house in the cave of the hills.

The worshipping of Mumoorthis, Viz. Siva, Vishnu and

Brahma changed the style of constructing temples in a natural

surrounding. So the temples are situated in a very fine and

evergreen of plantains, coconuts, and acrea palms with a tank

of crystal water just in front of them.

The God and Goddess are worshipped in the form of human

figure, made of stone, wood and clay. Likely the

construction of the temples was changed and built them with

clay and mortar. In some places, it was used thick grown

wood to build the temples. Such types of temples could be

seen in Kerala. Sri Natarajar Temple at Chidambaram is built

with wood. Sangam literature stress the fact that in those

periods, temples were built with the use of costly wood like

Teak, Red tree and Sandal. The drawback in the use of trees

in constructing temples is the destruction caused by fire.

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To avoid this drawback, clay was used in building the

temples. This type of temples were destroyed by a heavy

flood and rain. To remove this destruction, fired bricks and

mortar were used to build the temples.

It is literary known that Kochankannan, the Chola King

built 70 storeyed building for the God Lord Siva in 4th

Century AD. This building was built with the use of fired

bricks and mortar. Soon day by day that majestic temple wa.s

demolished by natural forces.

To avoid this drawback, Mahendravarman I (600-630 AD),

the Pallava King, engraved the rock into a huge hail and

concised pillars with artistic value and built cave temples.

The rock cut temples, he introduced, were built with the use

of wood, mortar, metal and bricks. His inscription says the

glories of rock cut temples.

The trends in building the temples had been changed

during the period of Narasingha Varman I, the pallava king

who built them on a single stone rock. For best example, we

can see the seven Pagodas at Mahabalipuram.

Big boulders of granite stones were used to build the

temples during the period of Raja Simha I. This style of

building the temples was followed by the Cholas and the

Pandyas in all over Tamilagam and Ceylon in later period.

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The size and capacity of the temples were increased

several fold by the ever new additions of spacious halls, of

the numerable shrines for minor deities erected in the

covered piragaharam or corridor. Later on the corridors were

built with hundreds of pillars on which are found sculptures

and statues.

The next and important trend was, the construction of a

big tower or gopuram which attracts the eye of the

travellers, devotees and visitors from a distance. Later on

fine arts like Sculpture, Paintings, Drawings and

Architecture were developing in the temple premises that have

revealed the potential means of learning history.

The 9th century AD is considered the golden age of

cholas in building a plenty of temples in Tamilnadu. The big

temple (Sri Peruvudaiyar Temple) at Thanjavur and the Gangai

Konda Oholeswara Temple at Gangaikondacholapuram built by

Rajendra Chola I (1012-1044 AD) are considered as the crowns

in the architectural history of temples in Tamilnadu.

The kings of Vijaya Nagar who ruled over Tamilnadu, had

extended the existing temples by building high towers

(Gopurams) and constructing Mathilsuvar with granite stones.

From the period of Kulodhunga Chola II, four towers were

built in four directions on the entrance of the temples. He

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began the style of constructing four towers on the entrance

of the temples. Similarly four towers were built at

Chidambaram temple in the 12th and 13th centuries. The

basement of the tower was built with granite stones and the

top seven storeyed tower was built with bricks and mortar.

Its height is 100 feet.

Then this style of constructing four towers was extended

to Kancheepuram, Thiruvannamalai and Madurai. It is

generally known that the height of these towers are more than

150 feet. The biggest and the highest tower in Asia is the

tower of Srirangam built by Geer Swamigal recently. Its

height is 236 feet having 13 storeys.

It is needless to say that the big and broad granite

compound wall (Mathil Suvar), Hundred Pillared Mandapam,

Thousand Pillared Mandapam, Entrance Mandapam and the Inner

Mandapam are the later additional developments in the history

of temples in Tamilnadu.

Further it is known that temples had been built for the

men of remarkable deeds who had earned an admiration and

respect of the people during their life time.

The earliest reference to a temple built on the tomb or

samathi of a dead person is perhaps the one at Satyaveedu in

Ponneri Taluk of Chengalput District.

22

Likely Melpadi inscription of Raja Raja I, the Chola

King, states that the temple of Arjuneswara was errected as

Pallipadai (a memorial over the remains) to the king who died

at Arur. Epigraphy says that the elder sister of Raja Raja I

had built the temple for Ponmaligai Dunchina Devar, the king

who died in a golden palace. Vijayala Chola (850-871 AD)

built the temple of Nisum Pasuthini in memory of his father.

Like the kings, sittars had been burned in the tomb or

samathi on which temples have been built, worshipped and

performed gurupoojas. The names of Sittars and the places of

their samathis are listed below.

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Ii

Name of Sittar

Kumbamuni

Thirumoolar

Thirumoolavarkkan

Thirumoola Nokkam

Sattaimuni

Pathanchal ±

Ramar Deva

Alunkannar

Narathar

Markandeyar

Machamuni

Place of Samathi

Kumbakonam

Chidambaram

Nedunkundram

Melaichidambaram

Sirkazhi

Rameswaram

Alagar Koil

Nagappattinam

Thiruvidaimaruthur

Karuvainallur

Thiruvanaikkal

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Dhanvanthiri

Vaideeswarankoil

Bogar Thirukalukundram

Kamalamuni

Mad ur a I

Boganathar Palani

Agapei Sittar Thiruvaiyaru

STRUCTURE OF A TEMPLE

The earliest form of a temple consisted three parts and

they are the Garpagraka, the Antarala mandapam and the Muka

mandapam. The main deities were installed sacredly in the

Garpagraka which is the inner most apartment and holy and

purified place of the temple. The devotees for worshipping

gathered together in the Antarala and Mukha mandapams. These

three parts were known by Traiyanga. In the outside walls of

those mandapams, there were niches provided to accommodate

some other principal deities.

Generally there are mainly two types of temples built in

those days. They are siva temples and vishnu temples.

- In the central shrine of a Siva temple, a linga is

generally found. The linga and Avudai within which it is

fixed, represent the purusa (the universal spirit) and

Prakriti (Primival matter) and thus establish the idea of the

evolution of the manifested world by their combination

resulting in a variety of forms.

This idea is prominently brought into the minds of the

innumerable devotees that stand before the shapeless image

wrapt in silence, perceiving how inseparably soul and matter

are united together in this world of changes.

In the central shrine of Vishnu temples, there are

invariably placed huge sculptures of one form or another of

the several manifestations of Vishnu with a number of

attendant deities.

The puranic stories regarding Siva and Vishnu are

picturesquely delineated in the images enshrined in these

temples, and the devotees are made to profit them.

The riches accommodated in them and the various forms

assumed by the Almighty furnish a visible explanation of the

fund of knowledge stored in ancient lore. Such are

Lingodhara, Dakshiamoorthy, Arthanariswar, Mahishasura-

mardhini and the like.

The Book "Manasaram" points out that there are eight

parts of the temples. They are 1. Tower or Gopuram 2.

Mathilsuvar or big wall 3. Suttralai 4. Parivara temples

5. Vimanam 6. Aka Mandapam 7. Maha Mandapam and 8. Muka

Mandapam.

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The basic part in constructing temple is 1. Peedam

(Aathitanam) 2. Suvar or Kal (Sthambam) 3. Roof or Kurai

(Prasthavam) 4. Kaluthu (Greevam) 5. Thalal (Sigaram) and

8. Kudam (Sthubi).

The six parts can be compared with human organs that

Adi, Kaal, TholL, Kalluthu, Stomach and Mudi. It is a

historical fact that the origin and extension of constructing

the temple from the early date to date have taught the lesson

to human being to realise himself in his life. The mortal

men became immortal men and eternal divinity by constructing

these temples. To live with peace and purified life, one

must have good mind and health. For attaining these, our

ancestors had built temples on the bank of the rivers or on

the top of the hills.

Tower/Gopuram

In a temple, tower is an important part as a head to the

man. The salient features of the tower of a temple is

discussed herewith.

Tower is generally considered as the main part of a

temple in Tamilnadu. They have rich artistic sculptures and

the scenery of puranic stories. Temple tower is referred to

our Tamilnadu State emblem. Temple Gopuram is the foot and

the Garpagraka is the head.

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The structure of the temple gopuram is found clearly

described in two books, viz., "Mayamatharn" and "Kasiyabha

Silba Sastram'.

As mayamatham explains, there are 15 types of gopuram.

1. Srikaram 2. Rathi Kantham 3. Kantha Vijayam

4. Vijaya Visalagam 5. Visalayam 6. Vibratheekantham

7. Srikandham 8. Srikesam 9. Kesavalingam

10. Swasthigam 11. Thisasu vasthigam

12. Marthasam 13. Manthara Kandagam

14. Srivisalam 15. Sathurmugham

ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF TEMPLES

The temples in Tamilnadu do not serve as the worshipping

places but also have economic significance.

Epigraphies found in the temples mention about the

donated villages and lands. They give a clear picture of

revenues from lands and point out the expenditure. There was

a regular budget system in the temples. They were concised

on the walls.

Expenditure must have been incurred for the daily

poojas, maintenance of the temples, wages to the workers and

celebrating grand festivals.

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Revenue from the lands, offerings in the Hundials and

Tulabaram are mentioned in the Edicts.

A record of the Rajendra I (1010-1045 AD) found at

Kolar, registers that there were eighteen classes of workers

in the temples for performing the temple services.

The village shepherds were left in the chart of temple

lands and livestocks. Bound by agreements they had to bring

to the temple premises, the ghee for burning the temple

lamps, rice, vegetables and fruits for performing the poojas,

Sandalpastes, incense scents like Pachaikarpuram, musk and

rose water. The requirements of the temples were given by

them according to the terms of contract.

The Sirpur inscription registers a grant of villages for

the maintenance of Aim Houses, the repairs of breaks or

cracks in the temples and the supporting of the servants of

the sanctuary.

Temple was the busiest part of all places in a big

village or town. From the early dawn till midnight, one

could see crowds of people rich and poor there gathered from

far and near. Commerce and Trade were practiced in the

temple premises. Barter system was in practice.

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Tulabaram is one of the main sources of income of the

temple. So it needs a mention here. Tulabaram was performed

by the ancient kings and Hiranyagarbha ceremonies which

attracted the crowds of people from all parts of the kingdom.

By the offerings through Tulabaram, the temples were earning

a large amount to administer.

The greatest Chola King Raja Raja I had his Tulabara

ceremony performed in the Sri Sivayoganandha Swamy Temple at

Tiruvisalur in his 28th year of reign in 1013 AD.

It is stated in the Tamil work, 'Kovil Olugu' that

Jatavarma Sundara Pandyan (1251-71 AD) the greatest of Pandya

King built Tulabara Mandapam in the Srirangam Temple. He

had his Tulabara Ceremony performed there several times.

Many of the Vijaya Nagara Kings had the same ceremony

done in the temples at Srirangam and Kancheepuram.

Almost in all temples visited by the South Indian kings,

special festival, called after their own names were ordered

to be conducted annually on the asterism of their birthday

and rich endowments were made for them.

SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF TEMPLES

No doubt it is known that Tamilnadu has the largest

number of the temples in India. From sangam age to date, the

29

30

temples are closely related to the human societies. Temples

serve as centres for the developement of the feeling of

integration among the people by removing the social

differences and caste differences. It serves as the centre

for village-town intergration.

From Tamil literature, it can be pointed out, that the

temples are developed by the human societies as well the

human societies are developed by the temples. It is clear

that temples are considered as the inner and outer growth of

human societies.

The temples had served as the free food centre. After

the pooja performance was over, either prasadams or meals had

been distributed to the people. Midday meals had been

provided in the temple premises. During the flood season or

drought season, people were lodged in the temple campus.

Moreover the temple was the principal feeding house of the

villages. All strangers, acestics and learned men were fed

in the temple. Fruits, ghee and sugar in large quantity were

used. People were served with boiled preparations from raw-

vegetables by the addition of condiments such as pepper,

pulses, mustard, turmeric, cumin, salt tarmarind along with

few others fried in ghee. Chillies did not go into their

preparations. Asafoetida was largely consumed.

A record of the . 12th century AD, states that a big

hospital existed at Thirumukkudal in Chengalput District

provided with a number of beds for the sick, with nurses to

attend on them, with men to fetch fuel and medicinal herbs,

with a good stock of manya patent remedy and with doctors and

others. There is not the least doubt that other temples of

the south had similar provisions. Thus temples were

benefitted to provide medicines and to serve as hospitals.

It is known from the inscriptions.

Temple served as the court. In the Mahamandampam, cases

were heard and punishments were given. Criminals were

allowed to ask forgiveness before the God by promising that

he would not do it in future. It is called Nayastala.

Judgements were declared in the name of God.

Temples also served as protecting places during foreign

invansion. The people used to stay inside the temple and

main gate would be closed. The main doors were fixed with

pointed iron kumil which prevented the elephants to dash

against the doors. Around the temple big and strong

fortified enclosed walls made of granite stones were built.

Moreover the high tower was benefitted to watch the enemy

from distance.

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EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF TEMPLES

In olden times, the temples served as the centres for

the development of Primary Education. At that time

recitation method of learning had been adopted. Vedic hymns

and devotional songs were recited in the temple premises by

the pupils at the age of 3 to 10.

In the temple in a spacious Mandapam so constructed as

to accommodate a large concourse of people, sitting on a

pedestal in a prominent place, a famous scholar chanted the

hymns of vedas and expounded them to his ardent hearers.

The Dharma-Sastra, emboding the rules of right conduct, the

puranas, grammar rhetoric, logic, astrology, astronomy,

medicine and other special sciences were taught to those who

thronged to learn them. In the temples at Thiruvorriyur,

Vyakkaraka, Somasiddhanta and Paanini sciences were taught.

There were references also to the recital and teaching of

Prabhakara, Rudra, Yamala, Purana, Sivadharma, Panchancja and

Bharata. Lands were granted to learned scholars and their

future generations as Vedaviruti, Bhattaviruti, Vaidyaviruti

and Archanaviruti and the like.

Among the Tamil hymns sung in the temples, were may note

those of Devaram, Thiruvasagam and Nalayiraprabhandham.

References to the recital of Thiruppallandu, Thiruvaymoli,

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Thiruchchalal, Thiruvembavai and Thiruppadiam are often found

in inscriptions.

From the inscriptions in the temple walls, we can

justify the chronological facts of the ancient Tamil kings.

Engineering and technological aspects of knowledge have

been developing in construction of the temples. In many

temples Yogakundam were built to perform yogas during the

festival times. The Yogakundams were built as per the basic

knowledge of Tricnometry and Geometry.

Temples had served as the seat of developing fine arts

like music, playing musical instruments, dance, sculpture

and paintings.

Music

Vedic hymns and devotional songs like devaram,

Thiruvasagam and Nalayira Prabhandham were sung with

varieties of Rahas in the temple when the poojas were

performed.

The chola inscriptions of Thanjavur insist that Rajaraja

Chola of Thanjavur has arranged a music competition in

connection with his birthday on Sathaya Star Day. At that

time he sang himself the songs of Devaram with sweet Raha and

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pann. He spent a large amount of funds adorning the musician

in the temples. His inscription points out the two words

related to the music, devaram padaran and udukkai thatti

which are not at present in usage.

Among the musical instruments that were in use in

ancient times, mathalam, karadigai, segandi, kaimani, parai,

sangu, yal, veenai, kulal, udukkai, kudamula and kalam need

mentioning. Nathaswaram, Nagara band and bell are the some

other musical instruments that occupy the dominant role in

the temples.

Villupattu, in Kanyakumari District, Kaaniyan koothu in

Tirunelveli District, Pavaikoothu in Thanjavur District,

Lavani in Ramnad District and Therukoothu in all over

Tamilnadu are playing vital role during the festival times in

Tamilnadu Temples. They convey the historical message and

incidents in a rhythmatic way with action. These are all

well known potentials to the history learning students.

Vellore copper inscription reads that the pailava king

Nandivarma III had donated three villages to meet out the

expenditure incurred for the welfare of the devotional

singers at Vallam Temple in South Arcot District.

Kathakalasebam, in the temple premises had developed the

art of music from the early times.

34

Paintings

In the temple walls, many kinds of paintings and drawing

were drawn and painted by the Tamil kings. The pallava kin,

Mahendra I beautified the cave of sithannavasal by colourful

paintings. Rajarajachola I had arranged to brush the walls

of Garpayrakam in Big Temple, Thanjavur with coloured

painting in a marvelous style.

Dance

In the temple of the southern India, there was

invariably a spacious ranga Mandapam. On almost all days,

dancing was practised here and on special occassions dramas

were staged. The dancing practised in the temple premises

consisted of several varieties of popular amusements

conveying religious instruction. The dramas were divided

into acts and scenes.

The art of Bharatanatya has been developing in the

temple premises. Many dancing posed sculptures are engraved

in the temples. A typical example is that in Sri Meenakshi

Temple at Madurai, one can look at the views of the dancing

sculptures in a big size. These dancing posed sculptures are

very useful to the learners/dancers in Bharatanatya.

35

The Nataraja Idols in Siva temples and the Kaalinga

Narthana of Krishna Idols in Vishnu temples are notified

dancing poses.

Silappathikaram, the great Tamil Epic by Ilanyovadigal,

points out the thirteen kinds of dances performed by Mathavi

in the temple premises.

The role of temples in Indian life can be known clearly

from the flow chart presented as Fig.l.

SELECTED TEMPLES IN TAMILNADU

The locality of the selected temples is pointed out in

Fig. 2.

1. Susindhiram Temple

In Kanyakumari District, Susindhiram Temple is the

oldest temple which is dedicated to Lord Siva, Vishnu and

Brammati. Hinduism speaks of three Gods named as Mummoorthis.

These three are in one form at Susindhiram. The name of the

Lord is Dhanumalayar. Danu refers to Lord Sivan, Mal refers

to Lord Vishnu and Ayan refers to Lord Brammah whose duties

are destructing, protecting and creating respectively.

Susi means holy or purify. Indiran came here and

purified himself and so it is called as Susindran. The

36

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37

-4

TyLc

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Fig-2. Locality of rp1

38

extent of the temple is 15 acres. In front of the temple is

a big magnificiant tower, the height of which is about 135

feet.

The other parts of the temple are Shenbagaraman

Mandapam, Unchal Mandapam, Kulasekara Mandapam, Vasantha

Mandapam, Alankara Mandapam and Navagraha Mandapam.

The Kulasekara Mandapam is embellished with musical

pillars like that of Madurai and Tirunelveli temples.

Twelve rasis and nine planets are found carved in the

Navagraha Mandapam to reveal the glorious astrology. Like

Coutrallam, here is a Chitra Sabha having mural paintings of

minor deities. The ancient place in this temple is

Konraiyadi Sannathi.

The temple is an Architectural monument to reveal the

conditions of ancient period in Kanyakumari District. The 18

feet high Hanuman Statue is found in the Piraharam. A big

nandi, made of mortar and bricks is considered as one of the

biggest in India. Its height is 12 feet.

It is a wonder that one granite sculpture is found for

Thirumalai Nayaker, whose nose hole is minutely bored till

the head. Likely if it can be inserted a wire though the

right ear hole of the statue, it can be taken out through the

left. It is also an architectural work during his period.

39

There are a lot of Epigraphies related to this temple.

The oldest epigraphies belong to the period of Prantaga I,

the chola king (907-953 AD) and Raja Raja I (985-1013 AD).

From the edicts found in this temple, historian can

understand that the control of Suseendram got changed into

the hands of Parantaga Pandyan and then to Venadu Kings. The

Venadu King Veerakerelan renovated the temple and named the

place as Veerakerala Sathurvethi Mangalam. In later period,

Thirumalai Naiyaker, the ruler of Madura too renovated the

temple. Thus it stands as the best monument in Kanyakumari

District.

2. Thiruvattaru Temple

It is in Kanyakumari District, in which Paraliyaru flows

in a circular shape and so called as Vattaru. Add the word

Thiru - Thiruvattaru.

In sangam age Elinlyathan, the Velir chief ruled this

land and Thiruvattaru was the capital. This is known from

the stanza 396 of Purananuttru paadal by Mangudikilar.

The main deity is Lord Perumal in a lying pose on the

counch of serpent named as Adhikesava Perumal. Nammaiwar and

Pillai Perumal Iyenkar have adorned the glory of Lord

Perumal. After visiting and praying Thiruvattaru Perumal,

40

Sri Krishna Saidanyar wrote the great work, "Sri Brama

Samhidai

The design and appearance of the Padmanaba Swami temple

at Thiruvananthapuram and the Adhikesavaperumal temple at

Thiruvattaru are the same. The inscriptions found in this

temple belonged to the period between the 11th and the 18th

century.

In front of the central shrine, there is a single stone

Mandapam in a square shape, raised on a platform and its

height is 3 feet, It is built by Verra Raja Ravi Varman in

16th century. His brother Adhithya Varman floored the

prakaram with granite stones. At the entrance, Dhuvarabalar

statues were installed by his younger brother Rama Varman.

At the entrance of the temple is a big and huge mandaparn

named [Jhaya Marthanda Mandapam built by the Venadu Prince

Veera tidhya Marthanda Varman in 1174 A.D. The architectural

work in the mandapam is in Kerala style. It is noticed that

the marriage procession of Vinayakar is curved on the wood in

the mandapam.

Artistic treasures made of stone and wood could be seen

in the temple. In the outer corridor, there are 222 pillars

on which the idols of Deepalakshmi in variety of dresses and

in different jewels are found artistically engraved.

41

Udhaya Marthanda Mandapam, single stone mandapam and

Pall mandapam are the important additions constructed by

different kings in different times.

The architectural work combines the style of Tamil and

Kerala that can be seen in this temple.

3. Courtallam Temple

Courtallam Temple is a famous Saiva Shrine in the

western part of Tirunelveli District. The temple is

dedicated to Sri Thirukutralanathar. The name of Amman deity

is Kuzhalvaimozhi Amman, the Devi whose voice is as sweet as

the music of flute.

The temple is conch shaped - peculiarly unlike other

temples which are either squares or rectangles in shape.

Inside the temple, there are three shrines:

Thirukutralanathar in the centre, Kuzhalvaimozhi Amman to his

right and Parasakthi on the left.

The temple contains many inscriptions relating to Chola

and Pandya Kings and their varied services between the 10th

and 15th centuries.

Near the temple is a sub-temple Chitra Sabha (Hall of

Pictures) dedicated to God Nataraja and decorated with mural

42

paintings of deities and devotees, puranic stories and

religious events.

This Sabah is one of the five sabahs, where Nataraja is

on Cosmic Dance with a candour of 'grace' fully pronounced.

In front of tne copper roofed sabah appears a lilly tank with

a heavily ornamented gopuram.

Saints Thirugnanasambandar, Tirunavakarasar, Manicka-

vasagar and Pattinathar have glorified the lord and have

poured forth their feelings of spiritual ecstasy in soul

stirring lyrics.

4. Tenkasi Temple

Tenkasi town and temple were designed and built by

Parakkirama Pandyan on the bank of Chittar flowing from the

hill of Pothigai. The king built his fort at a place called

Vindan Fort. Inscription says asVinthai or Vinthanur. The

king ruled Tenkasi from 1422-1463 AD (41 Years).

Tenkasi temple is dedicated to Lord Kasi Viswanathar

which was built in the period between 1429 and 1446 AD.

The plan, architecture and sculptures of this temple

stand as tangible proof of the genius and talent of the later

Pandya artists. They had preserved the ancient traditions.

They had added innovating features as revealed by the

43

Mahagopuram, the monolithic pillar sculptures and the musical

pillars.

The monolithic pillar sculptures of this temple occupies

an important place among the noted sculptures of Tamilnadu in

the lali Mandapam. There are eight monolithic sculptures. It

is notable that there is the unique form of Nrithamurthi in

Lalata TilaKa pose. It is an awe inspiring and the rare and

elegant manifestation of Krishna playing the flute.

The two sets of musical pillars found in this temple are

another notable feature. They are found in the mandapam of

Central Shrine. The music pillar in the central shrine is

clearly of early period. These clusters of musical columns

produce notes which must provide the percussion accompaniment

for the dancing girls. These beautiful musical pillars could

be compared with those found in the temples of Madural,

Tirunelveli and Suseendram.

The sculptures found in the Thiruvolakka Mandapam are

ten pillars having carved 6 feet high sculptures. Among them

two are men sculptures and the others are the divine idols,

Rathi and Manmadan's sculptures.

The temple has Mahamandapam, Kodi Mandapam, Thiruchuttu

Mandapam, Artha Mandapam, Manimandapam and Pall Mandapam.

In these mandapams one can see Akora Veerabadrar and Agni

44

45

Veerabadhrar like that of in Madura temple; Thirumal,

Sattainathar, Pathanjali, Yali and Panchapandavarkal Silai

are the notable figures.

5. Malaladikurichi Temple

It is in Tirunelveli District near Puliyankudi. This is

the oldest temple that was encarved in the year 637 A.D. by

the Pandian King, Chelian Sendan (620-642 AD).

At the entrance of this cave temple, there are two big

pillars and two semi pillars. The top and the bottom of the

pillars are in the shape of square and the central portion of

the pillar is beautified by eight angled prism. In top

square, there is carved the flower lotus. It is designed as

the pillars of Pallava's cave temple. Gandharvas are

engraved on the leaf of the lotus. Pothigai is figured in a

curving shape and stipped with row by row, which is called as

Tharanga Pothiyai.

A portion called Andharalam is cutup between the

entrance and the Karuvarai. The linga with Avudai is

installed in the Karuvaral facing towards the east. The

Amman Sannathi is in the South. The entrance of the cave

temple is annexed with Mahamandapam. The pillars of this

mahamandapam are carved in the architectural style of the

Cholas. Thus the temp le is a remarkable one explaining the

architectural work of pallavas and cholas.

6. Thirumalaipurara Temple

Thirumalaipuram is near Kadayanallur in Tirunelveli

District. A hill, named as Vannachi Parai, is drilled and

made cave temple faced towards the south. In the western

wall of the cave temple, Karuvara± is carved and dhuvarabalas

statues are engraved in the entrance of the Karuvarai. In the

opposite wall, Vinayakar, Thirumal, Koothaperuman and Brammah

sculptures are curved with beautification. The neck

ornamentals, Kankanankal, Kundalakgal and gopurams are formed

in attractive style to catch one's eyes. It belongs to the

eighteenth century. The structure of the cave temple is

similar to that of pallavas.

7. Krishnapuram Temple

Krishnapuram is a village in Tirunelveli District. The

temple is dedicated to Lord Perurnal named as Sri

Venkatachalapathi. The temple has full of art and

sculptures. It was built in 16th century by Krishnappa

Naikar, who ruled Madurai. The plinth area of the temple is

5 acres.

46

47

The temple was constructed under the auspicious

principles of the temple. It has Maha Mandapam, Mani

Mandapam, Artha Mandapam and Garpagrakam. In the temple,

there is a mandapam named Veerappa Naicker Mandapam which is

facing towards Southnorth and looks like a Durbar hail of a

palace. Today also in the mandapam, village cases could be

solved and judged. In the mandapam, there is a pillar. Its

height is more than 10 feet, made in one granite stone.

Wonderful sculptures are engraved adjoined to the pillars. A

Kurathi is carrying a prince, a princess asking prediction

and a prince who carries kurathi in his horse are the best

examples.

In the manimandapam, Rathi and Manmathan sculptures are

engraved. Minute holes are bored in the Karumbuvil of the

manmadan and the nose of Rathi. The. nerves of the men in the

sculptures are clearly exposed and they are the best examples

for the talent of the art of the sculptures found in

Krishnapuram temple. This is considered as one of the best

monuments to the students of history.

8. Tirunelveli Temple

In the centre of Tiruneiveli town is situated the temple

Swami Nellaiappar and Sri Kanthimathi Ambal. There is a

majestic tower on the Swami Neliaiappar Sannathi. To south

of this big and broad tower stands the tower of Sri

Kanthimathi Ambal. These two towers were built by

Muluthukanda Rama pandian and the other important parts of

the temple were constructed by Nindrasir Nedumaran who

reigned in the seventh century AD.

Originally the Nellaippar and Kanthimathi temples were

two independent structures. In 1647 AD, Vadamalaiappa

Piliatyan, a great devotee of Siva, linked the two temples by

building the chain mandapam.

In this chain mandapam, there are beautiful images of

Pachaivadivel, Kasiviswanatha Sattar, Hanumar, Arjuna and

Bhima. To the west of the chain mandapam is much admired

Kumaran Temple. In the another part of western portion of

the chain mandapam is an open space where there is flower

garden. This garden was set up by Thiruvengadakrishna

Mudaliar in 1756 AD.

In the centre of the flower garden is a squared Vasantha

Mandapam with 100 pillars. The Vasantha mandapam has been

rendered with the images of Lord Siva, Sage Agastiya and

other sages and water dripping from the head of the image of

Lord Siva.

In the southern corridor of the Nellaiappar temple are

found the flag stand and rooms for vakanams. On the pillars

48

of this corriodor can be seen the images of the Nayak rulers

till the days of Vadamalaiappa Pillaiyan. On the southwest

of this corridor is the Tiruppani Mandapam. In the famous

Arumuganainar temple is situated the peacock vahanam, Valli

and Deivayanai carved out of a single stone magnificiently.

Pillaiyan built this temple.

In the northern corridor of the temple is found a small

gopuram. There is also a small gopuram in the western

corridor. In the eastern corridor are found the beautiful

nandi, the stone sculptures of Pavalakodi, Alli, Manmathan

and Rathi. Kuravan and Kurathi are in the Somavara Mandapam.

It is also known as 'Navarathri Mandapam' . The attractive

features of this somavara mandapam are stone rafters and

stone replicas.

There is an image of Nandhi in white in front of the big

flag stand which was set up in 1555 AD, at the entrance Of

Swami Neilaiappar Sannathi.

Inside the swamy sannathi, one can see the sculptures of

Virabadra, Arjuna and Karna, and the images of Vinayakar and

Lord Murugan. At the southern side of the entrance is the

Nandi Mandapam where there are the images of Nayanmars and

Saint Sekkilar, The Nandi mandapam is said to have been built

in 1654 AD by Sivanthiyappa Nayak.

49

50

There is a Manimandapam in the Swamy Nellalappar

Sanriathi which is the best feature. In the manimandapam,

there are the famous musical pillars found in Madural,

Susindram and Tenkasi. Each pillar has a big pillar in the

middle surrounded by 48 small pillars and the whole lot has

been made out of a single stone. When tapped, each pillar

produces musical notes. The manimandapam with its famous

musical pillar was built by Nindrasir Nedumaran in the 17th

century A.D.

In the western corridar,. there is the Tambara Sabha

which is one of the five sabhas where Lord Nataraja had his

cosmic dance. Behind the Tambarasabha is the sandal pasted

Sabapathi. To the west of it is the image of the saivite

devotee Muluthukanda Ramakone. The special feature of this

temple is that the idol of Lord Nataraja is one of the

biggest in Tamilnadu with Nataraja in a dancing pose before

his devotee Karaikkal Tuamaiyar.

It is interesting to find in the eastern corridor, a

small temple built for Kanthimathi Ambal by a muslim anwar

Mauphizkhan, the commander-in-chief of the Nawab of Carnatic.

In the front of Amman Sannathi, there is a beautiful

Unjal Mandapam and the Saivite philosophic concepts are found

explained in its pillars. The Unjal Mandapam is used for

teaching Kolattam to girls for religious discourses and for

teaching Tirumarai to devotees. The unjal mandapam was built

by Cherakulam Piravi Perumal a devotee and Philanthropist.

The Thirukalyana Mandapam or Thousand Pillared Mandapam

is situated in the Amman Sannathi. It is 520 feet length and

63 feet breadth. Near the Unjal Mandapam, there is a sacred

tank which has a flight of steps in its four sides and a

mandapam in the centre of the tank.

The Eastern flight of steps and the mandapam were built

by the Thiruvavaduthurai Aadhinam, the southern side by

Dharmapuram Aadhinam, the western side by Venkatakrishna

Mudaliar, who was the agent of carnatic navab and the

northern side by Dhanappa Mudaliar.

The Ambal temple was built owing to the efforts of

Sundaratholar Pillaiyan. The Prakarams round the Ambal

temple were built partly by Dalavoi Alagappa Mudaliar and

partly by Thirumalalyappa Pillaiyan. Behind the temple is

another tank called as Karumari.

Many stone inscriptions are in the temple which reveal

that the outer wall of the temple was built by Kulasekara

Pandian with the money from war looty. Inscriptions of

Rajendra I and Kulothanga Chola-I are found carved in this

51

temple from which one can learn that at that time Tirunelveli

was part of Chola empire.

Inscription of Maravarman Sundarapandian, refers to the

Lord Nellaiyappa as Udayar and the Ambal Gandhimathi as

Nachiar. The extent of the temple is 850 feet length and 750

feet breadth.

The extent of the south corridor is 387 feet long and 42

feet wide. The western corridor is 295 feet long and 40 feet

breadth. The northern corridor is 387 feet long and 42 feet

wide. The eastern corridor is 295 feet long and 40 feet

broad. The trespassers of the corridors is 17 feet wide. The

Rishaba Mandapam of this temple was built by Sivanthiappa

Nayak in 1654 AD.

The gopuram of Swami Nellaiappar was built in 1620 AD.

The gopuram of Ambal Kanthimathi was built in 1626 AD. Thus

Tirunelveli temple is considered as the best monument in

Tirunelveli district.

9. Bramadesam Temple

Bramadesam or Sathurvethi Mangalam is a village near

Ambasamudram in Tirunelveli District. The temple is

dedicated to Lord Siva named as Sri Kailasanathar Swamy. It

is built by Rajaraja I.

52

At the entrance of the temple, there is a 7 storeyed

tower having full of architectural work. This tower was

built by Viswanatha Nayak the ruler of Madurai. At present

most of the idols in the tower are in ruined condition.

Next to the tower there is a huge stone mandapam named

as Nelkuthumpirai where rice is produced by hands to offer

daily Nivethanam and to feed the poor.

Vasantha Mandapam has many pillars and Vasantha festival

was conducted in this mandapam.

The width of the Mathilsuvar is 3 1/2 feet named Allodi

Suvar. There is many Parrot selves beyond the Mathil from

where army people had watched the enemy. So the temple

served as fort too.

The Nandhi is a huge made of granite stone which is said

to be the biggest one in Tirunelveli District. There is a

Mandapam in northern part of the temple in which it is wonder

that a chain with ball made of granite stone is found.

Maha mandapam, Somavara Mandapam and Arudra Mandapam are

the examples for the architectural value.

53

10. Thiruvaliswaram Temple

Thiruvaliswaram is in Tirunelveli District on the bank

of the river Gadana. Temple building received great impetus

from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja 1 and his son

Rajendra. In the early years of Rajaraja, many temples

larger than the specimens so far described, sprang up in

different parts of his growing empire. One of the most

remarkable-unique for the wealth and detail of its sculpture-

was the Thiruvaliswaram temple at Bramadesam in Tirunelveli

district. Its Garpagrakam is square: the Yall frieze on the

plinth consists of the full figures of the animal, not of the

bust alone as elsewhere. The Gana frieze below the co.rnics

is very well composed and shows figures in different dance

poses or otherwise engaged in merriment; some have comic

features, like lion-or monkey-faces and pot bellies, and the

whole scene of dancing, mockery and music is very humorously

portrayed. The entire cornice is elaborately embellished by

designs of foliage and creepers in the spaces between the

Kudus which are themselves highly ornate arches surmounted by

simhamukhas (lion faces). The first storey of the Vimana

carries a number of fine sculptures of the greatest interest

for the iconography of the period. On the southern side

there is the figure of Nataraja in the centre with

Vrishadharuda and Gangadhara on the proper left and

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55

Virabhadra and Devi on the proper right. On the Western

side, the centre is taken by Lingodbhava flanked by Vishnu

and Brahma. To the proper left are Kalarimurthi and

Kiratamurti and on the other side Yogadakshinamurti and

Umasahita. Gajari occupies the centre on the northern side

with Chandesanugraha and Sukhasanamurti on the proper right

and Somaskanda and an unidentified figure on the left. The

eastern side is hidden by thick brick terrace over the

Ardhamandapa put up in modern times. The second storey of the

Vimana reproduces on a reduced scale the ornamental features

of the exterior of the Garpagrakam including the friezes of

Ganas and Yalis and the Cernice. On the top of the second

storey are placed four manificent recumbent bulls, very

lifelike, one at each corner and facing outwards. In the

centre rises an octagonal plinth with the Griva and the

domical eight-ribbed Sikhara above. The Griva has niches at

the cardinal points bearing figures of a Vyakhaya-

dakshinamurti on the South, Yoganarasimaha on the West,

Brahma on the North, and Indra on the East. Over the highly

ornate Sikhara are the Mahapadma and Pattika with StupJL

above. The Ardhamandapa in front of the temple is coeval

with it, but the Mahamandam was a later addition, perhaps of

the reign of Rajendra I. While the shrine of Goddess is

later still, probably dating from thirteenth century. The

all

Uttara Kailasa shrine at Tiruvadi (Tanjore District), the

Vaidhyanatha temple at Tirumalavadi (Trichinopoly district),

the twin temple to Siva and Vishnu at Dadapuram (South Arcot

district) and Sivadevale Polonnaruva (Ceylon) are some of the

more notable among the many small temples of Rajaraja's

reign, though none of them approaches Tiruvaleeswaram from

the stand point of sculpture.

11. Thiruppudaimarudur Temple

The temple at Tiruppudaimarudur, is in Ambasamudram

taluk. No history of Indian art has mentioned it. It

contains one of the largest collections of painting in the

whole of India.

The neglect of the art treasures of this temple is a

reproach to scholarship. It is over a century since

monuments in India began to be surveyed. Yet

Tiruppudaimarudur, which deserves an honoured place in the

history of painting in Tamilnadu, seems to be little known

outside its immediate region. It has not attracted the

attention of those who write art histories.

Sculpture, particularly when it takes curious or popular

forms, attracts general attention Architecture by its very

massiveness imposes itself on the consciousness of 'the

57

people. But painting is generally disregarded. It is as if

it is considered beneath notice. Perhaps this is due to over

familiarity. Most houses contain some pictures, but very few

have any sculpture. Most people apparently find it difficult

to attach any value to the pictures they find on temple

wells. But they are impressed by sculpture.

The paintings in the second tier are of varied interest.

There are large paintings of Narasimha, Nataraj and Ganesa.

Chinese figures appear in some places. But the most

interesting painting is that of a ship carrying horses. An

Arab seems to be in command. On the top, there is a lookout

post. Another scene portrays what seems to be an army march

past.

The third tier contains, scenes from Thiruvilayadal

Puranam. There is Gundodhara with all his gigantic appetite,

despatching cart-loads of food. The marriage of Goddess

Meenakshi is depicted. There are a few scenes from the

'Sthala purana' of the Thirupudaimarudur temple. The ten

depictions of the 'Dasavatara' are interesting. The episode

of Sundarar and Cheraman, the saints also appears here. Many

of the panels carry descriptive labels.

These appear in the fourth tier too. The scene depicted

here include Karur Devar's visit to the temple, and the

marriage of Valli, Venugopala, Garuda and Manmatha also

appear. There are a number of floral designs.

The fifth ad final tier, contains the fewest paintings.

It is also the most damaged, by whitewashing here. There are

depictions of Kali and Ardhanariswara. Some floral designs

appear.

The paleography of the labels helps in dating the

paintings. Also useful are some of the subjects. The

appearances of the Chinese and the Arabs is intriguing. Over

the centuries, the Kings of south India used to import

horses. It was to take charge of some of them that

Manikkavasaga set out for the coast from Madurai to meet

with the incident that transformed him. The Vijayanagar

Rayas used to import horses on a large scale. In the

sixteenth century the South Pandya land was a part of the

empire. It is quite possible that during Manikkavasaga's

days, horses were unloaded in the Pandyan ports. The imports

impressed the artists so much that they depicted a foreign

ship so notably in this temple.

12. Madurai Sri Meenakshi Temple

Madural is situated on the bank of the river Vaigai. It

is one of the oldest cities in South India. All through the

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59

centuries, it has withstood many calamities. The muslim

invaders could not destroy the famous Sri Meenakshi Temple

and the other monuments of Madural.

From time immemorial, the city has been the seat of

learning and culture. Dravidian culture flourished in this

city for more than two thousand years.

The greatest temple of Madurai is Sri Meenakshi

Sundareswarar temple. The temple is rectangular in shape. It

was Thirumalai Nayakkar (1621-56 AD) who built the most

beautiful and artistic part of the temple. The temple is a

turn temple like that of Sri Nellaiappar temple at

Tirunelveli. There is one temple on the south dedicated to

Sri Meenakshi Ambal and the other is the consort of Lord

Sundareswarar. It is believed that God under the form of

Sundareswarar, married the daughter of Pandyan King

Malayadhuvasan. The temple is adorned with four big towers

in four directions.

The temple has much artistic sculptures to reveal the

historical events. The thousand pillared mandapam is a fine

artistic work to catch the stranger's eye. A single stoned

sculpture, like Veerabadra, Bathrakali and Kala Bairavar are

worthwhile to observe the architectural value of the temple.

Pandya kings had built the principal mandapam and kalyana

mandapam.

The Structure of Sri Meenakshi Amman Temple

The sanctum or Karuvarai, in the early period, had four

entrances which were guarded by two elephants in each

entrance. We can see the elephants in eastern entrance.

In the7th

In this century, sanctum of Swamy Sundareswarar was

built with the mandapam for Natarajar. Around them, there is

a compound wall/Mathilsuvar Kabali Mathil. It is clear that

in the 7th century, Swamy Sannathi with a single

pragaram/corridor had been built. These information is

pointed out by Sambandar in his - Devaram.

In the 12th Century

The great Tamil work, Thiru Aalavaiyudaiar Thippari

Malai furnishes the information that Kulasekara Pandian

built the Arthamandapam in Swamy temple, Mani Mandapam,

Mahamandapam, Arukall Beedam, Gopuram and its circular

Mathilsuvar. In addition to these constructions, the Pandian

king built Sulabathi Nayak temple, Malaimakal temple niches

for sun, sandeswarar and so on.

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A separate temple for Sri Meenakshi Amman was built by

Sadaivarman Kulasekara Pandian (1168-1175 AD). It is read in

the edict found in the first corridor of the temple.

Maravarman Sundara Pandya I (1216-1238 AD) built the

majestic temple tower/gopuram with nine stored tower.

Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I (1251-1268) completed the

construction of the tower.

Maravarman Sundara Pandia II (1238-1251) built Sundara

Pandia Mandapam in the Meenakshi Temple, and second corridor

in the Meenakshi Temple, In the swamy temple, he built

Seendra Maran Mathil, Athira Veesi Aduvarar Mandapam,

Thiruvambalam in the first prakaram and seven storeyed

Chithrai Gopuram, He completely renovated the temple in his

period.

in the 14th Century

The western tower of the Swamy temple with nine storeys

was built by Parakkirama Pandian in 1323 A.D. He extended

the temple.

In the 15th Century

Mavali Vanathirayar, the Nayak King crowned by Lakkara

Nayakker, built the sanctum, mahamandapam, aarukal mandapa

vasal, front mandapam for Lord Nataraja, Amman sanctum, maha

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mandapam, palliyarai, and the prakaraswvar in the first

corridor. He also expanded the temple.

In the 16th Century

Chinnappa Nayar, the representative of Vijaya Nagar

Empire, (1524-1527 AD) built Nayak Mandapam and the temple

for Sani (Saturn). He strengthened the Chittarai tower. He

made a way between the Amman temple and the Swamy temple.

The five storeys eastern tower of Swamy Sannathi was built by

Vasuvappa Nayakkar and the western tower with five nilais was

built by Mallappa Nayak (1529-1542 AD).

In 1570 AD, the representatives of the Vijaya Nagar

Empire, Thumbikki Nayakkar and Thimmappa Nayakar built

additional Mandapams. In 1578 Thumbi Nayakker

(Virathumbikki Nayak) built Niruthi Moolai Mandapam at

Adiveedhi.

Thimma Nayak (1558-1560 AD) built Gnapurushamiruka

£4andapam, Sankile Mandapam and Kandarakandan Kuradu. He

formed the garden (Nanthavanam) also.

13, Anaimalai Cave Temple

Anaimalai is near Madurai city. This hill is similar to

that of an elephant stretching its fore hand. The cave

temple cteciicated to Lord Narasimha was built by Marankari,

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the Minister of the Pandya King Kolochia Nedusadaian

Prandagan ( 765-790 AD) and the work was completed by his

brother Maran Aeyini. It was built from 765 AD to 770 AD.

The temple is built on the shape of the Anaimalai hill.

The entrance has two big pillars and two semi pillars as

found in Malaiadikurichi. Pothigai is engraved in an

ordinary design. Meet to it, is Andaralam which is annexed

with Karuvarai. In the karuvarai, the idol Narasimhas, in

the pose of toring the body of the Aswa Eranian is installed.

Near the rock temple, there built an Artha Mandapam and

Mahamandapam. In the opposite of the Central shrine, is the

temple for Karudalwar. A separate temple is built for Thayar

Sannathi.

In the western slope of the Anaimalai hill, another cave

temple was cut up. It is dedicated to Lord Arumugaperuman

with his consort Devi Valli and Deivanayaki.

14. Thirupparankundram Temple

Thirupparankundram is near Madurai and its temple is

dedicated to Lord Muruga. It is a cave temple. The

Karuvarai is a cave. The deity is carved on the shape of the

rock. The karuvarai has these niches the niche faced to the

East is for Sivalinga, to the west is Thirumal and to the

north having another three niches from the Lord Muruga, Durga

and Vinayagar are engraved. In the north wall of the east

niche for Siva, the sculpture for Natarajar and in the west

nich for Vishnu, the idol for Narasimhar Adhivarahar are

engraved. This cave temple was built by Medusadaiyan

Proudagan, the Pandya King in 778 A.D. His chief commander

maka saamnuthan sathan Ganapathi carried out this work. His

wife Nakkan Kontri established the sankathis to Durga devi

and Jastadevi.

This temple is the best artistic work of Pandya kings

with highly structured sculptures similar to the cave temple

of Eloora in Maharastra State. There is a separate niches

for Gajalakshmi and Bhuvaneswari. The Pillars of the cave

temple have two square shapes as the portion and Tharanga

Pothigai, and like that of Mahendra Pallava style.

In the south of this cave temple, there is another cave

temple in a demolished condition, named as 'Vnaiyandan cave

temple'. It belongs to the 8th century. In the east faced

Karuvarai, Arthanareeswar idol is carved and in the south

well of the cave temple is engraved Nataraja Peruman. The

front Mandapam was built by Thirumalal Nayakar.

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15. Pillaiyarpatti Temple

It is a cave temple. It belongs to the 7th century

architecture of Pandya king. It is the oldest rock cut

temple built by Pandyas. The temple is dedicated to Lord

Karbagavinayakar. It is similar to the Mahendran style of

architecture. The other deities in the temple are

Lingothbavas, Ariyaran, Ambal and Subramanian. The

lingothbavar is engraved as that of Kundrakudi idol. the

sculpture is rested on the prismed pillar as in Kundrakudi.

It is near Karaikudi in Pasumpon District. By this temple,

one can understand the reign of Pandya king who ruled over

the Pandya kingdom.

16. Kundrakudi Temple

It is also a rock cut temple built during the period of

8th century by Pandya kings. There are two cave temples at

the foot oL the hill. One cave temple is having the idol of

Lingothbavar, Ariyaran, Natarajar, Naanmugan, Thirumal

Korravai Murugan and Vinayagar. At the sculpture of

Korravai, one devotee had offered his head for her, is

engraved. This is a wonderful piece of work.

Another cave temple is dedicated to Lord Vishnu,

engraving Dwarabalaga statues at the entrance, with

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Karudalwar. Thirumal has posed with four hands with the

surrender pose of Karudan. Top of the hill is a temple for

Shunmuganathan. It is a cave temple of Pandyas.

17. Rameswaram Temple

The temple of Sri Ramanathaswamy at Rameswaram is said

to have been constructed at the instance of ceylon. It took

350 years to construct this temple. This temple dates back

to the 17th century. The tower is 100 feet high and the gate

way is in a big quardangle. This quardangle is 1000 feet

long and 650 feet broad.

An impressive pillared corridor surrounds the

quardangle. Its total length is 4000 feet. It is very rare

to find such a beautiful and grand corridor anywhere in the

world. There are hundreds of pillars on either side of the

corridor. Each pillar is a fine piece of stone carvings.

The structure with its superb art creates awe in the minds of

the observes.

18. Srirangam Temple

The temple is dedicated to vishnu deity Sriranganathan

and his consort Sridevi and Bhodevi. Srirangam is an island

surrounded by the River Kaveri and Kollidam. The temple of

Sri Rangan is like that of a fort. There is a strong outer

wall or Matrilisuvar enclosing the temple. There are also six

other fortified walls round the temple. The temple was

extended by Cholas, Pandyas and Nayaks.

The outer Mathilsuvar, the seventh one, is 3072 feet

long and 2521 feet breadth. The central shrine is Lord

Sriranganathar, who is lying as the bed of serpend, graces

the devotees. The main entrance is faced to south, on which

a multistroyed tower has been built which is said to be the

highest tower in Asia.

In the fourth circular suvar, there built a thousand

pillared Maridapam which is famous for Aranketrum of Kambar's

Ramayana.

Seshagiriraya Mandapam is near and opposite of the

thousand pillared mandapam. It is an artistic valued

mandapam. The sculptures encarved in this mandapam are in

Dravidian style of architecture. In the pillars of the

seshagiriraya mandapam, the sculptures of foot and leg,

raised houses, elephants, yalis, lions and Tigers are

encarved.

In eastern side, there is a tower having flight of steps

which helps to climb up the top of the tower from which, one

could see the scenaries of the town.

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In the southern side (main entrance), latest

multistroyed tower has - been built by the great saint Jeers.

The tower is called as white tower. A historical event is

behind the tower.

The Kalje commander Malikkabur tried to hold a robbery

of the wealth and ornamentals of Sriranganathan. His captain

Ital-khan was entrusted this work. When Italkhan tried to

enter the temple, he loved a beautiful lady Aranganatha

Manickam and decided to marry her. An agreement was made by

her that Ital khan should go to the top of the tower with her

to see the beautiful natural scenaries of the town. He

agreed her decision and viewed the scenes of Srirangam. At

that time, AranganathamaniCam pushed her husband Italkhan

down and he met a fatal accident and dead. By this great

sacrifice, Manickam prevented the robbery by Italkhan.

Vijaya Chokkannatha Nayak presented many valuable jewels

to Srirangam temple. In 1895 AD, Wales of England presented

the golden plate to the temple which is kept safely as the

moment of the England Royal family.

The history of the temple can be known from

Sthalapuranam, kovilolugu, Meccancy's work and EpigraphieS

during the period from 906 AD to 946 A.D. The temple was

administered by cholan pradhagan, the pandya kings, hoysalaS

and Vijayanagar kings.

19. Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram Temple

Rock temple built by Nãiasingavarman is called the

Rathas of Panchapandavar. In Mamallapuram, there are nine

Rock temples built by Narasimhavarman. Rock temples are

classified into Madakovil and ordinary temple. Ratha of

Arjunan, Ratha of Dharmar and Ratha of Sakadevan are

madakovil and others are ordinary kovils. Ratha of Arjuna has

two storeys, the ratha of Dharmaraja has three storeys and

the ratha of sakadevan has three storeys. The rathas of

Arjuna and Dharmaraja are in Dravidian style and the Ratha of

sakadevan is vesara style.

Drowbathai Ratha

It has two platforms. The basement platform is carried

by the sculptures of lions and elephants. In the upper

platform, there is a temple for Durga facing towards west.

There is a Karuvarai with sculptures encarved on the rock of

the karuvarai.

Arjuna Ratha

It is facing towards south having two stored madakoil.

A square typed basement is carried by lions and elephants.

Beema Ratha

It is a long square big temple made in single rock. Its

structure resembles the temple of Lord Nataraja at

Chidambaram.

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Dharmaraja Ratha

It is a three stored temple. The plinth area is 29

square feet. Its height is 39 feet facing towards west.

Sakadeva Ratha

It is otherwise called lanai temple or Alankovil. Its

structure resembles the back side of an elephant. It is

facing towards south with the stored building/temple. In

proud of the temple, there is Artha mandapam. Behind the

arthamandapam, there is Karuvarai. In front view of the

karuvarai at both side, the head of the elephant is encarved.

Ganesa Ratha

It is otherwise named as Tl Athyandha kama palleswaram",,

dedicated to Lord Siva. Athyandha kama was the nick name for

Parameswara Pallava I. Mamalla Narasinga Pallava began to

build it and Parameswara Pallava finished its construction.

The temple is facing towards west with a long Artha mandapa

in front of it. Arthamandapam has four pillars of which two

are lion pillars. In the middle of the Arthamandapam, there

is a karuvarai. Manjam, Kadam, Kosttam, Pancharam and

Karnakoodu are set up on the karuvarai which are the salient

features of pallavas art of constructions. At the top of the

karuvarai, salakara vimanam was built in vesaram type of

construction.

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Pidari Ratha

It is situated near the valayan kuttal on the two rocks

facing towards north. It is a three stored small temple. At

Mamallapuram, Dravidian style of rock temples are constructed

as described in the books of sculpture. A round shape vimana

temple named Srivijayan is not found here. If it is built,

all types of dravidian style of temple construction could be

seen in one place that is here.

Valayankuttai Ratha

It is found near the canal of Bucckingham. It is not in

full shape. Manjamkaluthu and Viman are found well shaped.

20. Kooram Temple

It is the first granite built temple by Parameswaran

Pallavan, the son of Narasimha Pallavan. The place, in which

temple is built, is called as Parameswara Mangalam after his

name.

Rajasimha Pallavan constructed temples with granite. He

built Kailasanathar temple at Kanchipuram and Seashore temple

at Mamallapuram.

Inscription of Rajaraja Chola says, there are three

temples on the seashore of Mamallapuram and they are

Chattiria Sikamani Palleswaram, Rajasimha Palleswaram and

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Pallikondarulia Devar Kovil. The first two temples were

drowned into the sea.

It must be said that no other temple could stand

comparison with the cave temples at the seven pagodas in

neatness of execution and in boldness of design.

The detailed workmanship displayed in the pallava

sculptures are conspicuous by their absence in most of the

images found in the caves of Chera and Pandya countries.

Hundreds of Jaina figures are found out on the sides of big

boulders but there are poor limitations of pallava art.

The Vayalur pillar epigraph and the Tirupporur

inscriptions clearly suggest that temples at Vayalur and

Tirupporur belonged to some pallava structural monuments.

21. Canjeevaram Sri Kailasanathar Temple

Canjeevaram, considered to be one of the seven sacred

cities in India, was successively the capital city of the

pallavas, the cholas and the Rajas of Vijaya Nagar. During

the 7th century and the 8th century some of the best temples

in the city were built by the pallavas. In Srikailasanathar

temple, the beautiful idol of ArthanareeSwar depicts Siva, in

the famine and masculine forms combined into. In the female

part, one can see a veera, the stringed musical instrument,

and the male part is stated on a bull.

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22. Chidambaram Temple

Chidambaram is famous for its temple of Siva. It is

one of the largest, most ancient and most sacred of the

temples in South India. This temple covers an area of not

less than 39 acres. It is built almost entirely with

granite. The main buildings are enclosed with two high walls

faced with dressed granite. Through both walls can be seen

four main entrances facing the four points of the campass.

The upper parts of entrances in the inner wall of four great

gopurams (towers). are embellished (beautified) with numerous

sculptures representing religious sciences.

The gopuram over the northern entrance bears an

inscription which shows that it was built by Krishnadevaraya,

the greatest of the Vijayanagar Kings (1509-1530 A.D.)

The eastern gopuram bears an inscription of Sundara

Pandya Deva of Madurai who ascended the throne in 1251 AD.

The western gopuram was built by Kopperunjinga, the

Pallava King whose capital was at Sendamangalam in South

Arcot District.

The southern gopuram is supposed to have been built by

one of the chola kings.

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The height of these gopurams is above 150 feet and the

lights which are lit on them on holy days are well known land

marks for mariners.

The lower portions of the gopuram which are built

entirely of stone are decorated with little panels containing

dancing figures. Within the inner wall is a great space

mostly paved with stone slaps.

Entering by the southern gate, one sees first a big

Nandi (Sacred bull). To the west of this is a shrine to

Ganapathi. To the east is the great Sivaganga tank riveted

on all sides with stone and surrounded by a pillared

cloister.

Beyond the Sivaganga tank is the thousand pillared

mantapam. The thousand pillared mantapam is 340 feet long

and 150 feet wide. It is one of the five sabhas of the

temples. It is called the Raja Sabha or hall of State.

The hail was almost certainly erected between 1595 and

1685 AD.

Devasabha, Chit Sabha, Kanaka Sabha and Nritta Sabha are

the remaining four Sabhas and are located in the inner

enclosure of the temple which is the most sacred and

important part of the whole temple.

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The lingam of the temple is supposed to be the Akasa

1 in g am.

It is known that the chidambara Rakasyam or secret of

chidambaram is situated behind the idol and a long string of

golden vilva leaves are suspended in front of it.

The Kanaka Sabha is also of wood and is roofed with

plates of copper.

The Nritta sabha or hail of dance is considered to be

the most beautiful and interesting part of the temple. It

consists of a mandapam, adorned with wheels and prancing

horses on either to represent a temple car. It is supported

by 56 pillars about eight feet high and most delicately

carved from top to bottom resting on a stylobate ornamented

with dancing figures.

The walls of the two innermost squares of the temple are

of chola origin, for, in a number of inscriptions relating to

the chola period, the walls are found designated Vikramachola

Thirumalicjai and Kulothunga chola Thirumaiigai. There are

numerous carvings on the walls relating to gifts of land,

jewels, money etc. to the temple but none of them shows when

the temple was founded. There is some evidence in the

eastern inscription to show that the MulasthaneSWara shrin

close to Deva Sabha is the oldest building.

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One of the inscriptions shows that Vikrama chola built

portions of the temple in 1128 AD. He is also said to have

covered with fine gold the enclosure, the gopurams, the halls

and the buildings surrounding kanaka sabha.

The thousand pillared mandapam is stated to have been

built by a king named Naralokavira who is identified as

Parakrama Pandya of the 13th century AD.

The Vijayanagar kings made some additions. After them,

towards the close of the last century, Nattukottai Chettaiars

took up the work of renovation on a large scale with the aid

of the special fund formed by the members of their community.

23. Thanjavur Temple

The Brihadiswara temple is a monument dedicated to Lord

Siva. It is a fitting symbol of the magnificient achievement

of Rajaraja (985-1012 A.D.). He was a devout Saiva. The great

chola king undertook the construction of this big temple or

the Brihadiswara temple, one of the most admirable monuments

of Tamilnadu.

The temple is constructed of granite mostly of large

blocks of a rack. The plinth of the central shrine is 45.75

square metre. The Vimanam is 60.96 metre high. On the

massive plinth, there are niches on three sides in two rows,

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containing the representations of deities such as Siva,

Vishnu and Durga.

On the southern wall, the lower niches contain Ganesa,

Vishnu with Sri Devi and Ehu Devi, Lakshmi, a pair of dwara-

balas, Vishnu vanugraha - murti, Bhikshantar, Veerabadra, a

pair of dwara-balas, and two chandrasekaras one with and the

other without halo.

In the lower niches, one can see Dakshinamurti,

Kalakanta and Natesa. On the North, in the lower series are

Ardhanariswara, Gangadhara and a pair of dwarabalas. Here

one can see the sculptures of Alinga chandrasekara, Siva

holding Sula, Saraswathi Mahishasuramardini and Bairava.

The top niches show a number of Tripurantagas. In the

small circular space of this top nich are carvings of the

deities like Ganesa, Vrishavavakana, Bhikshantar and

Narasimhar.

Entering the temple from the east, there is a flight of

steps lading to the pillared mandapam. Apart from the

mandapam and the steps leading to it, there are two other

flights of steps on the northern and southern sides of the

mandapam. The nandis on the vimanam are found seated

sideways but their heads turned to the front.

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The stone constituting the huge sikara is said to weigh

81.284 tonnes. It is popularly believed to have been raised

to its present height by being dragged on an inclined plane,

which had its base at a place known as Sarapallam, 6.44 km

away.

The vast inner court yard of the temple is 152.40 m long

and 76.20 m wide. It is surrounded by a cloister. At the

entrance, one can see two gopurams, one is larger and the

second is better decorated.

The second gopuram has two monolithic dwarabalas and the

carvings of the marriage of Lord Siva and Parvathi, the

scene of Siva protecting markarideya, and Arjuna winning the

pasupata weapon.

A huge monolithic Nandhi in the canopy of a mandapam

facing the central shrine, indeed is a fitting vehicle for

colossal linga installed in the central shrine. The height

of the Nandhi is more than 3.66 M. The lingam in the central

is known after Rajaraja, as Rajarajeswaramudayar.

The dark passage in the sanctum contains important

specimens of sculptural art. There are three colossal

sculptures representing Siva as holding a spear, seated Siva

carrying a sword and siva with ten arms dancing in the

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chatura pose as Vishnu plays the drum and Devi sits in

padmasanam with a lotus kind and rosary in her hands.

The entire wall space and ceiling of the passages were

covered with paintings. It was obscured by a coat of

painting executed during the Nayak period in 17th century. A

Notable worthy scenes of paintings are Siva as Dakshinamurti,

seated on a tiger skin in Yogic pose and the story scene of

how siva come down in the form of old man with a document in

his hands to establish his right to carry away sundarar on

his marriage day to his abode at Thiruvennainallur. There is

a painting of a lively scene of woman cooking and food being

served during the marriage festivity.

There is a large figure of Nataraja dancing in the

golden nail at Chidambaram with priests and other devotees.

On the opposite wall, there are some charming miniature

figures of graceful women. A little further up is Rajaraja

with his Guru Karuvur Devar.

The entire northern side is painted by a gigantic figure

of Tripurantaka Siva on a chariot driven by Brahma. Th

greatest master piece of painting of Rajaraja Chola is the

pose of a warrior with eight arms, all carrying weapons and

in the act of using a mighty bow to overcome a host of

aggressive and fearless demons with their women fold clinging

to them.

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The achievement of the art in the chola period is

revealed in the fine series of the one hundred and eight

dance poses carved all around the inner walls of the first

floor of the temple. They are considered as an invaluable

document in the history of Indian art.

24. Daaraasuram Temple

The chola's architectural contribution is the temple of

Darasuram.

There is a large gopuram, the upper portion of which is

ruined. There is also a second gopuram. In continuation of

the second gopuram is the larger prakakara wall around the

temple. The wall is decorated with couchant bills at

intervals.

The gopuram is supported by pillars in a row which have

some fine encarvings.

Beyond the second gopuram is a large balipitha with

beautiful lotus - petal decoratings. There is a large Nandhi

like that in Tanjore.

On the sides at the entrance are small balustrades with

beautiful makara decoration.

The mahara with a floriated tail, short legs, and cured

up snout and a pair of dwarfgana riders on it forms a lonely

decoration.

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Beyond it is a beautiful mandapa with a number of

pillars with flights of steps on the east and west. The

balustrades for these steps are nicely decorated with a long

curling thick issuing out of a lion head.

A similar second one runs parallel to the trunk of an

elephant, lost in the open jaws of Mahara whose floriated

tail is called up, to balance the complete design.

The elephant is beautifully decorated. It has on its

back dwarf ganas, the Sankha Nidhi and Padma Nidhi.

The eight outer pillars of the mandapam are supported by

Squatting Yalis. The trunks of the yalis curled up and with

pronounced apace.

The lotus-petal decoration below has prominent petal-

tips.

As in the other pillars in the mandapam, the capital has

the beginning of the bodhika decoration which develops into

the lotus decoration.

Each of the four inner pillars is divided into sectors,

three oblong and two polygonal.

The rectangular portions of the pillars are decorated

with small panels illustrating mythological stories such as

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(1) the attack of manmatha (2) the penance of Parvathi (3)

the prayer of the Gods for a son of Siva (4) the birth of

Kumara (5) Siva's marriage (6) Siva t s fight with Asuras.

There is an inscription which describes as Swasti Sri

Rajagambiram Thiru Mandapam, as four pillars.

On either side of the mandapam, there are lonely

galloping horses, with a huge wheel carved behind it, which

gives the mandapam the semblance of a chariot.

The front of the base of this mandapam extension is

decorated at the bottom with panels showing (1) Siva fighting

the Tripuras from the chariot. 2) Kalantaka repelling Yama

for protecting the son of Mrikandu whom Siva had blessed with

a long life. 3) Siva burning kama who dared attack him with

his flowery bow and arrow even while his lovely queens

including Rati and other gods pray for his being spared.

4) the destruction of Daksha's sacrifice by Virabadra.

In the riches, there are Agni, Indra, Brahma, Vishnu and

Vayu, all standing with hands in the attitude of reverence of

Siva.

The main mandapam is decorated with a pair of yakshas

guarding Padma and Sankha Nidhis in riches on either side of

the mandapam.

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SECTION III: FORTS - A THEORETICAL OVER-VIEW

WHAT DOES FORT MEAN?

Generally speaking that a fort may be described as a

well fortified and protected area in which the ancient kings

used to live with their officials and people. Fort is

otherwise called as 'Durg' which means a hard and difficult

place where no enemy could enter into it.

The structure of any fort is either in the shape of

square or triangle or arthachandran or circle.

The entrance of the fort was so high that the kings

could enter into it by sitting on the back of elephant

holding country flag on his hands. Round the Fort strong

granite stone wall was constructed so that enemy could not

seize it easily.

Inside the Fort four ways road were maintained which

were used to go to the main-entrance, the palace, the temple

and the office of the Dharma-Athikarikal.

Inside the fort, quarters for officials, army men and

needful people were built. Hospitals both for human being

and animals were constructed inside the fort.

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Government treasury was built in the south side of the

fort. Weapon store house was placed in the Agnikonam

adjuourned with kitchen and industry centres

Ancient kings built forts with a view to protected his

kingdom and his people. Fort is a building for military

defence. The ancient forts were benefitted to protect the

kingdom and their subjects from their enemies and their

attacks.

From the two great epics, Ramayana and Mahabaratha it is

known that the forts had been built in the capital of the

country. They had been erected in well protected areas.

Round the fort, there built a big and broad compound wall

made of black granite stones. The natural strength of the

rock wall was still further increased by the construction of

the embrasured walls and gateways, along all possible shelves

and percipitous edges equipped with loop holes for the use of

guns and musketry. They were connected with one another by a

Ramport. These well protected area is called as fort.

TYPES OF FORTS

There were four types of forts and they are 1) Forts

built on the plains called as Stala Durg 2) Forts constructed

in the middle of the thick forest-called as Vana Durg. 3)

Forts built on the top of the hills - Giri Durg (Senji Fort)

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and 4) Forts constructed on the surface of the water - Jala

Drug. In kanthapuram, kachiappa munivar describes the fort of

veera mahendrapuram built by sevan, on the surface of the

water.

STRUCTURE OF A FORT

The general structure of a Fort in Tamilnadu is:

1) Enclosed forest 2) Ditch 3) Fortified wall 4) Outer

wall 5) Innerwall 6) Rampart 7) Palaces 8) Temple 9) Tank 10)

Treasury 11) Staff quarters and 12) Army quarters.

Enclosed Forest

Outscrits of the forts are covered with thick forest

having planted thorny trees through which none could enter

into it. Thorny trees like Karuvelam, Babul, Bamboo and

Elanthai plants were planted around the forts for protection

purpose.

Ditch

Round the fort's compound wall, every fort had the ditch

which is about 80 feet depth, 100 to 300 feet breadth. The

ditch was filled with fresh water channeling from the inside

forts. Poisonous animals like Edangar, Kara and crocodile

lived in the ditch. To enter into the fort from the main

land there was a wooden bridge.

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Fortified Wall

Round the fort there built a compound wall with huge and

broad granite stones. These huge boulders are largely

unclaimbable and well fortified on every side by the

battlemented stone walls equipped with loopholes for use of

guns and musketry.

Outer Wall

The outer wall of the fort was built beside the

fortified wall. In them, armymen could stay and guard the

fort. They could not be seen by their enemies because of the

construction of the outerwall. Outside of the outerwall is

perpendicular and the inner side slope.

Inner Wall

There is a gap between the outerwall and the inner wall,

which was filled with straw of paddy and Raki. Also between

the inner and outer walls, copper plate was fitted and built

with mud. It was built strongly by using the mixture of Raki

plump and palmyra juice.

Mathil Suvar

Mathil suvar was an important place in the construction

of the Forts. It was a well fortified wall to defend the

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enemy. The mathilsuvar was too high to climb. It could not

be demolished easily. Metal plates were used to construct

it. Copper plates were used in Sangam age.

The basement of the Mathilsuvar was built with granite

stone. There were two layers, outer wall and inner wall.

Between the two walls, there was a gap in which straw, paddy

pod, rahi pod, umi were filled with them. There was a tunnel

under the mathil likewise there was Alankal, Kilikudu over

the mathil. Kilikudu was used to defend the enemy from the

top of the mathil from where one could see the enemy from

distant.

Some sorts of machines were erected in the Kilikudu to

defend the enemy.

During the sangam age, the mathil was constructed with

Palmyra juice mixed with mud.

The King's Flags was hoisted at the top of the fort and

their emblem was encarved at the entrance of the fort.

It is known from the sources of Purananuru: Cholan

Nalankilli demolished seven golden forts of the Pandya King

and engraved his tiger emblem on the entrance of these seven

forts.

Temple was built in each and every fort. For example in

Vellore Fort, Sri Jalakandeswarar Temple was built. In

Gingee Fort, Sri Ranganathar temple was built. In Tanjore

Fort, Sri Bhrahadeeswarar temple was built. In Rock Fort,

Trichy, Sri Thayumanavar Temple was constructed. In Namakkal

Fort, Sri Ranganathar Temple was built.

Rampart

This is made of larger size of granite and they are

connected with one another like a chain. It is nearly 15

feet high from the inner wall. To claimb the top of the

Rampart, many row of flights of steps were constructed. The

Horizontal surface of this was used to place war materials

and weapons.

Palace

It is generally seen that in Tamilnadu, palace was built

inside the forts. Most of the palaces are situated in the

protected forts. Construction of palace inside the fort is

one of the structures seen in the forts.

Temple

An other notable thing is that the forts are having big

temples. For example, Jalakandeswar Temple in Vellore fort

and RanganathaSami Temple in senji fort.

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Tank

In the middle of the fort, there was a tank with

protected water. The tank was useful to provide water for

the ditch located in the outside of the forts.

Treasury

Governments offices and Treasury were located in the

forts.

Staff Quarters

In side the forts, there was a colony for the government

personnel living. They could call for anytime for the

urgent government duty.

Army Quarters

Soldiers were living in the forts.

Ancient Tamil kings established their capital city in

the centre of their country. In the heart of the capital

city the palaces were constructed. Around the palaces, the

quarters of the officials serving in the palaces like

prohithars (preachers), ministers, doctors, veterinery

doctors, Musicians and other needy people were constructed.

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ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF FORTS

The economic policy of the ancient fort was very

flexible. Different types of people lived and were engaged

in different types of occupation. Peasants were treated with

great respect. Next to them weavers enjoyed great influence

in the society. Division of labour was practised.

Inscriptions show that payment of revenue was frequently

made partly in kind and partly in cash, so much rice and so

much gold so that cash-nexus between the fort area and the

village had already come into existence in that region though

it was not yet universal.

The most probable view is that at the fort area,

transactions were increasing slowly through out the country.

Inscriptions establish the fact that the authorities

could on occasion exact compulsory labour from villages.

MerchaiThs travelled freely over the country but the

volume of their transactions and their methods of business

are matter for conjecture.

Barter system was adopted in the society and animals

were treated as the medium of business exchange.

SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF FORTS

The Brahmins enjoyed high position in the society. They

became a distinct group in the community.

Arts like sculpture, architecture and music were treated

to be hereditary acquisitions.

It may be observed from the literary and Epigraphical

sources available that slavery system prevailed in the

country. The slaves were merely of agricultural labourers.

The peasants were the largest rural community. It is to

be understood that there were social stratifications from the

very early times.

In the fort, the royal princes and the important

officials lived a life luxurious and they ate and drank as

suited to their wealth and status. Non-vegetarian was quite

prevalent. The common people ate and drank as well as they

could. Vegetarianism was popularised by the brahmins.

The common people wore cotton cloth rarely supplemented

by silk. Tali was a sacred ornament which was not to be worn

by a widow.

The butcher, Dhobi, barber and sewage cleaner were to be

allowed to the outer side of the forts.

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EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF FORTS

Education was a developed faculty in Tamil country.

Through sangam, education was spread among the people who

lived in the forts. The Word 'SANGAM' itself stands for a

great academy engaged in the excellence of literary pursuits.

Under pallavas and pandyas (550 - 850 AD) education was

matured. A rich body of literature was produced which are

full of educational ideologies and principles.

Brahmins ran schools either in their own residences or

in centralised schools endowed by the royalty or aristocracy

of the land.

SELECTED FORTS IN TAMIL NADU

During the epic period, the kings built forts and lived

in the palaces which were in the middle of the forts.

The first historical information about the forts in

Tamilnadu is quoted from the epic Ramayana. Valmiki in his

great epic mentions about the kingdom of pandyas and their

forts and its city gates. He describes that the city gates

of the pandya kingdom had been richly embellished with gold,

pearls and jems.

In the sangam Tamil work Purananuru, it is said that

cholan Nalankilli demolished seven storeyed compound wall one

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by one which is considered as seven gold fort of pandyas and

encarved his Tiger emblem.

Chola king karikalan built his fort at Kaveripumpattinam

with the labour force of 12,000 singalees soldiers who were

brought to Chola country after conquering ceylon.

Avur Fort

Purananuru stanca 44 gives the information on the fort

of Avur.

There was a battle between Nalankilli and Nedunkilli to

size the fort of Avur. Nalankilli seized the fort and closed

the gate of it. Transport and communication, and every

things had been closed. Ladies and children in the fort had

suffered a lot by hunger. The poet kovurkilar made them

compromise to open the gate way of the fort. He says, if

Nalankilli is polus, open the fort or greedy proclaim the

war

The locality of the selected Forts is noted in Fig.3.

1. Circular Fort (Vattakottai)

The circular Fort is 6 kilo metre away from

Kanniyakumari. The Fort was built by Raja Varman, the king

of venadu. The extent of the Fort is nearly 5 acres. The

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circular Fort was designed by the Dutch captain Dillanoi. In

1740 AD, Dutch army under the captain Dillawari fought

against the king of Venadu Marthanda Rajavarman at Colochel

port. Dutch was defeated in the battle and the Dutch soldiers

were surrendered under the Venadu king. He wanted to build a

Fort towards the south east frontier of his country. The

slaved captain became his commander and prepared to design

and build the fort with the assistance of his thousands of

Dutch armymen on the seashore of Bay of Bengal.

It served as the Artillary Fort of Marthandan dynasty.

At the entrance of the Fort, there is the emblem of

Raja Marthanda Varman having the letters R.V. with name in

English as VATTAKOTTAI. Nearly 1000 armymen were guarding

the Fort.

Inside the Fort, to lodge the soldiers, there are four

mandapams made granite stone. The ceiling of these mandapams

have the emblem of fish which is the emblem of the Pandya

Kings. From this, one can assume that the relationship

between the Marthanda dynasty and Pandiya kings was

congenial. The other view says that the Venadu king

defeated the pandya king and destructed the stone

manufactures which were transported to circular Fort and used

to build this fort.

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In the centre of the Fort is a tank and a steep yard is

round the tank. The trace of the mandapam had been used as

the artillery parade ground.

The parade ground was in the open yard facing towards

north and south. The sunlight freely rises in the parade

ground. To step up the parade ground, there are flights of

step on either side of the ground. 13 steps were built with

strong 1 1/2 feet thick granite. Still they are in good

condition.

Round the fort, strong and high compound, and enclosed

walls had been constructed with stone, mortar and fired

bricks. Parrots and niches are built with selves to watch

the movement of the enemy. The enclosed walls have the

surface width 3 1/2 feet and the slopes are about 1 1/2 feet.

The fort is projected to the sea about 100 feet length.

From there, the soldiers could watch the naval force of their

enemies.

To place the commander at the top of the Fort, a

standing platform measuring 30 feet slope had been built on

both side of the parade ground.

There was a tunnel from here to Padmanabapuram palace.

But at present it is in ruined condition. The fort of

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Udayagiri and Padmariabapuram place were built in the same

period.

2. Rock Fort

Rock Fort is situated in the city of Thiruchirapalli.

It is in the heart of the city. It is the only hill fort in

the Chola Kingdom. It is situated in a single rock. The

fort is fortified well with big granite stones. The mathil

suvar has enclosed the fort, the temple and the tank. Round

the mathil suvar, there might have been some sort of trench.

But at present these are changed as streets after demolition

of trenches.

The western entrance is still there and called as main

guard gate. This fort has played an important role in the

carnatic wars. Inside the fort, there is a rock cut temple,

built by Pallava kings.

In 1559 A.D. the Chieftain of Madurai, Viswanatha Nayak

captured this rock fort and renovated the fort. Rani

Mangammal built a beautiful palace inside the fort. Trichy

was ruled as the capital city in the reign of Muthukrishnappa

Nayak, the eighth king in Nayak dynasty. Thirumalai Nayakkar

had transferred the capital city from Trichy to Madurai.

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From Thirumalai Nayakkar, Nawab of Arcot Chandra Sahib

captured this fort in 1736 AD. In 1751 AD Mohammed Au

seized the fort.

In 1766 Hyder Ali of Mysore invaded against this fort

but he did not attack the fort But in 1768-69, he came back

and demolished the Mathilsuvar. In 1990, Tippusultan

attacked Srirangam but he did not attack Trichy Rock Fort.

In addition to this Rock Fort, there are two other

temple forts, Srirangam Temple Fort and Thiruvanaikkal

Temple Fort.

Srirangan Fort is naturally situated in between the

river Kaveri and Kollidam which serve as the trench of the

Fort. This tort has seven different kinds of enclosed mathil

suvar which are made of granite stones. The outer

mathilsuvar is 3072 feet long and 2521 feet breadth. The

entrance of the fort is faced to south. After the entrance,

there are many streets and houses of different people.

In the fourth enclosed circular suvar, thousand pillared

mandapam was constructed. This mandapam has the credit that

Kambar published Kambaramayana here. In the fourth circular

suvar of eastern way, there is a tower having flight of steps

to go to the top of the tower.

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During the war, Mohammaddians, French people and British

people had occupied the Sri Rangan fort as their forts.

3. Thanjavur Forts

Thanjavur was successively the capital city of the

imperial cholas in the 9th century, the Nayak reign in 15th

century, and the Maratha's regime in the 18th century. It is

notable that Tanjore was the capital city more than thousand

years. Forts and palaces found in the city are considered as

the best historical monuments. Dravidian style of fort

building was constructed in this capital city.

Maadam, Maaligai, Koodam and Gopuram are the four types

found in Dravidian style of construction. These four forms

can be seen in the forts of Tanjore as well as the palaces.

Veerarahavan Fort and Rajarajeswaran fort otherwise

named as Temple Fort are the chief forts found at present.

Veerarahavan Fort is called as big fort. It's extent is

nearly 530 acres. The mathilsuvar of this fort is 151 feet

height and 15 feet breadth. The branches of the river Kaveri

are surrounded by the Veerarahavan Fort as the trench of the

Fort. Inside the fort were four streets and a numerable

buildings, which were not proportionately built. In the

eastern of the Fort, is a small hill on which canvas had been

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placed. There are two durbar mandapams. There is a big

library in Saraswathi Mahal.

Rajarajeswaram Fort was constructed by the Chola King

Rajaraja I (985-1014 AD). It is renamed as small fort and

Sivaganga Fort. The river kaveri is surrounded by the fort

as the trench. The mathil suvar is built with strong block

of granite stones. On the surface of the mathil suvar, a

number of bull idols (Nandhi) was placed.

The entrance of the fort is named as Kerelathari vaiel

and it has a big tower. The another entrance, tower is named

as Rajarajan Tiruvaiel. In side the fort, the chola king

built a big temple. This fort was constructed during 1003-

1006 A.D.

At present, the mathil suvar of the fort and trench are

in a demolished position.

Thanjavur Rajarajeswaram Fort

Rajaraja-I began the construction of this fort in 1003

AD and completed it in 1006 AD. It is otherwise called as

small fort or sivaganga fort. Around the Rajeswaram Fort,

there is a ditch, one can see it. At the another entrance of

the fort, there is a tower and the entrance is called as

Keralanthagan voil. Beyond this entrance, there is another

entrance which is called Rajarajan Thiruvoil.

Beyond the second entrance, there is a broad and lengthy

open space floored with granite stones and fired bricks. Its

length is 500 feet and the width 250 feet. There is a

platform on which is a big Nandi. The Nandi mandapam was

built by Naiks.

Veerarahavan Fort

It is otherwise called big fort. Its extent is 530

acres. The compound wall of the fort had the height of 150

feet and width 15 feet. The branches of the river Kaveri

served as the ditch of the fort. There were many big

buildings and four big streets inside the forts. The eastern

side of the fort is a small hill, with a height of 150 feet

on which 24 feet long cannon was placed. 8 storeyed building

was built inside the fort. There are two Durbar halls, big

library called as Saraswathi Maha, and Aritellery Koodam.

4. Gingee (Senji) Fort

Senji is famous chiefly for the historic fort. This

fort stands on three hills, steep, rocky, and concerned with

such enormous boulders. The boulders are almost unclaimable

and arranged in a form of triangle. Each of the three is

fortified on all sides with line above line of stone walls.

The stone walls are flanked with bastions, fitted with

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emprasures for guns, loop-holded for musketry and pierced

only by narrow and strong gateways and from each to the next

connected with these defences, runs a great stone-Laced

rampart nearly 60 feet thick with a ditch over 80 feet wide

outside it.

The triangular space enclosed forms the lower fort and

the three hills are the citadels. The lower fort is entered

by two gates, one on the north called Arcot gate, and the

other on the east known as Pondicherry gate.

Each of the three citadels leads from the lower fort a

steep flight of step of hewn granite built with much skill on

and among the great boulders with which the sides of the

hills are strewn.

The citadel on the north is called Krishnagiri, that on

the south Chandrayan Durg, and that on the west, the highest

is Rajagiri. To the south of Rajagiri is Chakkilian Durg, a

smaller portified hill.

In 1200 A.D. Senji was fortified by a shephered Ananda

kone. He found a treasure in one of the cavities of the

western hills while grazing his sheep.

With this earning from treasure, Anandakone became the

head of a small band of warriors. He built small porters

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on Kamalagiri or Anandayiri. His successor Krishnakone built

the fort of Krishnagiri. His successor Konnerikon cut out

the elaborate steps to the fortress of Krishnagiri and built

Sri Gopalasami Temple on its top.

Puliakon excavated tanks and built rest houses by the

side of the roads leading to Trichy, Tanjore and Vettavalam.

Thus Senji is considered as an important monument.

5. Namakkal Fort

In the centre of the Nammakkal city, there is a hill

called as Namakkal hill which is naturally a big, undivided

and hard single granite hill. Its height is 200 feet. The

eastern and western sides of the hill are very deep

vertically situated so that no one can enter into it. But

the northern and southern sides are slanding and hence steps

were encarved on the southern side of the hill. The extent

of the fort is 1 acre.

The steps are very narrow. There is a demolished wall

in the south. The demolished wall might have been the

remains of the old fort.

At the top of the hill, there is a temple for Thirumal.

Many epigraphies are found encarved on the side of the temple

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wall. The 30 feet squared building, made of bricks and

mortar, might have been the treasury built on the top of the

hill.

There is a secret way in the north of the fort. The

compound wall is made of stones which are connected as a

chain. It is noted like other forts there is no use of

mortar or cement. The western portion of compound wall built

on the fort is constructed with bricks and mortar. The

breadth of the wall is 3 feet on which there are small holes

through which Warriors used to shoot their enemies.

Round the rock hill, there is a tank namely Kamalalayam

which served as the ditch of the fort.

Mahendra Varman I encarved the rock cut temple in the

western side of the hill namely Sri Ranganathar Temple. Thus

Namakkal Fort is considered as a monument.

6. Tiger Fort

The fort is situated in Nilgiris district. There were

eight forts around the mountain Nilgiris. Pulikottai,

Malaikottai, Uthayarayan Kottai (Koriakkarai) are the

important forts. These were built by the kings who belonged

to the race of Vadugar.

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Pulikottai is built on the vertical hills. Naturally,

the deep valley served as the protected trench. Its forest

is considered as the protected forest. The fort is connected

with the main land by a narrow rock bridge in which one could

walk or cross the bridge. The vertical and naturally polished

rock served as the natural protection, through which the

enemy could not climb with thread ladder. Its height is 6000

feet.

Around the fort, there is a long and strong mathilsuvar

with kilikoodu to watch the enemies. The wall is 1500 feet

long and 600 feet breadth. Thippu Suithan reconstructed the

tiger fort and named as Syed Bad, Malaikottai as Ussainbad

and Utharayan fort as Umarbad. During his reign, these forts

were under the control of his commander Alikkan. Tippusultan

prisoned the British captain Herbad in the tiger forts.

7. Vellore Fort

Vellore fort is built in semi-circle shape made of

granite stone with well advanced engineering technology.

Round the fort is a ditch as protection in which thousands of

crocodiles were brought up and so one could not enter into

the tort through the ditch. Its height is 16 metres, length

is 760 metres and breadth is 455 metres. The outerwall is

made of granite stone, having guard loom and cannon room.

Inside the port, there built a mosque by Sanda Sahib, a

church built by Britisher and the temple Sri Jalakandeswarar

by Nayaks. So it is at present considered as a secular

monument.

This fort was built by Chinna Bommi Nayak, the general

of Vijayanagara empire in 1566 A.D. There are many secret

tunnels inside the fort. In 1806 Vellur mutney started here

which served as the first independence war.

SECTION IV: PALACES - A THEORETICAL OVER-VIEW

WHAT DOES PALACE MEAN?

Palace is the dwelling place of royal family and the

kings. It was considered as the house of the king and the

queen. The place has many large splendid rooms with

spaciously well ventilated. The outer look and appearance of

the palace is usually well designed and decorated.

The word 'Palace' , is derived from 'palatine hill' in

Rome on which Augustus the first Roman Emperor built his

home.

The most magnificient palaces belonged to those ancient

empires in which powers of kings were more exalted.

In the ancient times, the king's power was generally

unchecked. As he was regarded as the protector of the

subjects, his dwelling had to be magnificient and remote from

ordinary people.

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It is clear that the dwelling place of the king is the

palace, which is well constructed with multistoreyed

buildings.

STRUCTURE OF A PALACE

The palaces in Tamilnadu included the following

structural parts:

1) Entrance 2) Reception Hall 3) Conference Hall, 4)

Anthapuram 5) Manimandapam 6) Guest House 7) Treasury 8)

Dinning Hall 9) Balcony (Portico) 10) Well Fortified compound

wall 11) Armoury 12) Living Rooms 13) A huge temple 14)

Swimming Pool or tank 15) Granary.

Entrance

The entrance of the palace was built to be too high

enabling the entrance of the soldiers riding on the elephants

back, having raised the flags of victory.

Reception Hall

Beyond the entrance is a Reception Hall where the kings

used to call on the important persons as well as the

foreigners.

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Conference Hall

Conference Hall is a magnificent one having raised a

platform on which the king used to seat on his throne. On his

both side armed women served. Chief minister and ministers

were seated in front of the kings row by row. Beyond them,

soldiers used to guard. At the upper portion of the hail were

niches from where royal women used to watch out the routine

works of the Conference hail.

Anthapuram

Anthapuram is a separate spacious room for the queens.

It has a p0111 to provide for playing royal ladies with their

friends. Polil is looked like a park having full evergreen

trees and flower plants. A small tank is also dug for

the swimming of the royal women.

Manimandapam

Manimandapam is an important part of the palace in which

the kings and the queens used to take rest and to consult

with eacn other about the important decisions of the

government secretly. The idols of elephants and deers were

made of gold and installed in the manimandapam. This is

mentioned by the Tamil Epic Seevaga Chintamani. It adds more

that the unjal was decorated with gold and gems.

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Guest House

Guest House is a private hall for lodging the foreigners

and royal relatives from other countries. They were

embellished with ornamental work. They were well provided

with warm hospitality.

Treasury

Treasury was constructed in the middle of the rooms so

as to prevent the burgalary. Most of the jewels and money

were stored well. Its inner wall was coated with copper

plates.

Dinning Hall

Dinning Hall is benefitted to feed the people who lived

in the palace. Many big vessels were preserved there.

Adjoining it, was a kitchen in which foods were prepared with

care.

Balcony

Balcony or portico had been constructed on the enclosed

wall of the entrance of the palace from where, royal women

could watch the outer world.

At the first floor of the palace is a Nila Mutrum on its

surface the royal family used to take food and to take rest.

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Compound Wall

The enclosed wall is properly fortified with strong

granite stones. It has three layers to prevent the foreign

invasion. The inner side wall of the palace, it is informed

by Nedunelvadai, was fitted with copper plates. Flowered

designs were drawn on the inner wall.

Armoury

Armoury is the storage of the weapons of the country.

It is properly protected.

Living Rooms

Living rooms were ventilated properly, which were used

by the royal families.

Temple

The yet another part of the palace is a temple. The

palace of king Sargon (720 B.C.) at Khorsabad had a huge

temple for the worship of God Ashur. Likewise, Tamil kings

had built temples inside the palace for their favourite Gods

or Goddesses.

Swimming Pool

Inside the palace, it was provided the Neerali (Swimming

Pool) or tank to take bathe by the royal families. It was

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planned to pour the fresh water and to let out the dirty

water from the pool.

Granary

Granary was built in the inner circle of the palaces and

kept in secret. The materials collected as tax from the

people were stored in this granary.

There was a planned drainage system at the top of the

palaces. Rainy water could come out through the structure

called as Pmbanangal which was built in the shape of the

mouth of a fish.

Nedunelvadai, the Tamil work describes the night lamps

in the palaces which were named as Pavaivillakku made of

bronze and moulded by the greeks. It reveals us that there

was relationship between Tamilnadu and Greece.

Silapathikaram, an epic in Tamil, points out the palaces

as they were built in the cities and towns. They were called

as Veyaa madanyal which were built with fired bricks and

palmyra juice mixed mortar. These palaces had separate rooms

called as Koodam, Thayakkattu and Adukkalai. The balcony of

the palaces faced towards south so as to be ventilated. The

roof of the palaces was tiled with golden tiles.

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The inner walls of the palace have functions: to protect

the interior from weather, to support the upper floor sand

roof, to enclose the space of the rooms and to give privacy.

ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF PALACES

The palaces of the ancient kings had economic

significance. The wealth and gold and the income of the

country were accounted by the experts. There were labourers

of all kinds like carpenters, cobblers, masons, blacksmiths,

goldsmiths, builders of the buildings and so on. Gold coins

were used for trade purposes. The barter system of trade was

followed.

Rice, Plantain and sugarcane were grown. The royal

family wore woolen and costly silk dresses. Commodities were

stored in the godown of the palace. Horses of high breed

were imported.

Ornamentals made of nine gems and Ivory were used. Soft

muslin clothe were used for making dresses.

Furnitures, used in the palaces were made of teak and

sandal. Many valuable commodities were gifted to the kings

during their birth day. Foreign trade was developed. The

ancient Tamil kings had oversees commerce and trade with

South East Asia, China, Arabia, Greece and Rome.

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Many Greeks and the Romans had come to the Tamil country

for commerce.

SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF PALACES

Social and cultural life of the people, lived in the

palaces was divided into 'Agam' and 'Puram'.

Agam emphasised life with love and puram stressed the

values like valour, munificense and honour.

The society was divided only on functional divisions and

not on any caste division.

Women were treated with respect and honour.

The royal families had closely related by the practice

of marriage. There was no inter marriage system. The royal

princes had loved an ordinary woman in the society. If their

love was not fulfilled, they were prepared to expel from the

country. It is named as 'Uadanpokku'. There is a lady

friend for conveying the news among the lovers.

Regarding the puram, wars and battles were important.

The princes did heroic deed to marry the princes.

EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF PALACES

Royal families were taught good education. The children

were sent to the teachers to learn and to develop their

knowledge. Gurukula System of education was followed.

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Women in the palaces were educated. A library was

established in side the palace to develop their knowledge.

Best example is Saraswathi Mahal Library in Sarboji Palace at

Tanjavur.

Special teachers were appointed to educate the princes

or princesses. The women in the palaces learnt music,

dance, drawing and paintings.

SELECTED PALACES IN TAMILNADU

The locality of selected palaces in Tamilnadu is noted

in Fig.4.

1. Padmanabapuram Palace

Padmanabapuram was the capital city of Venadu under Raja

Marthanda Varman. In the year. 1744, Raja Marthanda Varman

dedicated Venadu to Lord Sri Padmanaba Swamy at

Thiruvananthapuram and renamed it as State of Trivancore and

called his capital city as Padmanabapuram.

The oldest book Kerelorppathi clearly cites the

importance of Padmanabapuram. Raja Marthanda Varman came to

power in the year 1729 AD and he built the palace of

Padmanabapuram in 1740 AD. The extent of the palace is 6

acres and the area of building is 3 1/2 acres.

1

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The Padmanabapuram palace was well fortified by granite

stones around it. Raja Marthanda Varman built the palace

under the architectural style of Kerala. This monument

consists of stone sculptures, wooden sculptures and wall

paintings with weapon and armed materials.

In the north eastern corner of the palace, there is a

temple for Sri Ramar built by Raja Marthanda Varman. In the

inner pirakaram of the temple, scenes from Ramayana were

sculptured on the wood. This temple is one of the best

monuments in Kanniyakumari District.

The palace has P00 Mandapam, Thai Kottam, Conference

Hall and a long and spacious dinning hail having a huge size

of pickle jars.

2. Ettiapuram Palace

It is situtate in Tuticorin District. A small chieftain

from Chandragiri fort in Andhra state came here and ruled

over the small samasthanam of Ettiapuram.

Peria Appa Nayak was the first Chieftain in Ettiapuram.

They were respected as small chieftain till the Nawab period

and they were considered as the Palayakarars in Thirumalai

Naiker period who ruled over the Madurai Region.

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The Pandiya King Adhi Veera Prakiraman donated some land

in Illampuvanam where the Ettappa Nayaks built a fort in 1440

AD for the Nayaks controlled the maravas at Karukondanpatti.

The present Ettiapuram palace was built by Jaga Veera

Ramakumara Ettappa Nayak in 1567 AD. When Ettiapuram Nayak

went to the forest with his crew for hunting, his huge and

fearful dogs drove some rabbits very fastly. But it was

wondered that in a particular place, the rabbits drove back

the dogs. They returned as fast as they could. The Nayak

selected that particular place for constructing the palace.

In later period, it became a town named as Ettiapuram and the

Nayak built a temple named as Etteeswaramoorthy.

The palace had been constructed in the structure of

eight pillars and eight windows. Its extent is nearly 50

acres. The main entrance is called as Aachara Vasal. The

palace aacharam (rituals) began from this gateway. Those who

wanted to meet the nayak should wear durban on his head and

Dhoti with panchakacham but should not wear shoes or

slippers.

Then one can see the darbar mandapam which is carried by

huge pillars, polished well. Next is crowning mandapam

having full of paintings denoting the glorious ancient

period.

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The main mandapam is made of woods. Yali turned the

head of an elephant made of wood engraved in one of the

pillars. There is a rounded stone weighing 75 kilos to test

the warriors who had to throw it as far as he could.

The way to the old palace has many turning bents so that

one could not see the inner portion of it, because royal

women were living in the old palace. The royal women could

watch the dancing programme only through the windows which

are specially designed. Nobody could see the royal women but

they could see the audience.

Nearly 500 years have passed still the palace appears

majestically and splendidly. By this monument, one can

understand the Ettappa dynasty.

3. Thirumalai Naick Palace

This palace was built in 1636 AD by Thirumalai Naick,

the greatest of the Naik rulers of Madurai. The palace is

a majestic and splendid building. The building is in square

type. At the centre of the building, there is an open

ground. Huge pillars are carrying the entire building.

The palace has conference hall in the western side,

Right to the hall, there is an anthapuram or the queen's

palace. At the top of the conference hail are many niches

from where royal women had watched the conference meeting.

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The pillars of the palace are round and in big size.

They are well polished with mortar. There are many halls

which served as the Treasury, Granary, Armouries and

Government Offices.

The privacy mandapam for the kings was built with bricks

and mortar so that one could not enter into it. Most of the

materials used for constructing the palace were sand, clay,

limestone, and Palmyra juice and Karukkai juice.

From Vandiyur, sands had been dug and transported to the

palace sight. Now this place is called as Vandiyur Teppakulam.

The palace is designed in Vijayanagar style. Most of the

parts of the palace are well embellished with artistic value.

At present it is being opened for visitors, and in the night

light and sound exhibition has been conducted since the world

Tamil Conference held at Madurai.

4. Thanjavur Palace

This palace was built by Chola Kings. It had been the

home of many chola, Nayak and Maratha Kings. It is a grand

pile of building with big Corridors and halls.

The entrance of the palace is well decorated with

artistic work. Raja Sarabhoja remodelled the palace in the

latest design.

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The famous Saraswathi mahal library is in this palace

It contains about 35,000 volumes in Sanskrit, Tamil, Marathi

and some European languages.

These books deal with Science, Medicine, Engineering,

Astronomy, Painting and Dancing. The nayak and the maratha

rulers collected these over a period of three hundred years.

The Sangeetha Mahal, the mansion of music, is perfectly

planned in acoustics and other details. This mahal was built

by Raja Sarabhoji in 1779. It looks like the court of the

Thirumalai Nayak's palace in Madurai.

SECTION V: HISTORY CURRICULUM IN SCHOOLS -

A CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK

WHAT IS HISTORY?

History is the study of man and his wonderful

development in the world. It is said to be the queen or

mother of social science. It is the meaningful record of

human achievements. It helps us to understand the present and

to some extend to predict the future.

The word history is of Greek origin and originally it

meant, 'enquiry or investigation' The word was used to refer

the process of enquiry. It is also used to the knowledge

obtained as the result of enquiry into different human

actions and his written accounts.

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Herodotus, the father of History, followed the principle

of enquiry. He gives as history - scientific abstract,

concentrated, shorn of all elements of myth.

Thucydides, living in the fifth century, believed that

real History could deal only with contemporary events.

History is a meaningful story of mankind depicting the

details of what happened to man and why they happened. It is

concerned with man in time. It deals with a series of events

and each event occurs at a given point in time. History is

concerned with man in space. Individuals and nations are

studied in spatial context namely the physical and

geographical environment. The interaction of men on

environment is a dynamic one. So, it treats the play of time

and space on man. It treats the play of man upon space

through time.

History is a study of the totality of man's behaviour.

Man's achievement in every field of life, political,

economic, social, cultural and religious at local, regional,

national and international levels are the subject matter of

History. It starts with the past, makes present its sheet of

anchor and points to the future.

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WHAT DOES CURRICULUM MEAN?

Curriculum consists of the totality of experiences that

a pupil receives through the manifold activities that go on

in the school, in the class room, library, laboratory,

workshop and playground and in the numerous contacts between

the teachers and pupils.

Curriculum must respond to the needs of the society and

must train and equip the individuals to develop their

potentialities to their full so that they may be able to make

their contribution to the good and enrichment of the society

of which they are integral parts.

It includes all the experiences which are utilised by

the school to attain the aims of education

The understandings, attitudes and appreciations,

abilities and skills which pupil needs now in the solution of

his current problems, turn out to be similar to those of

which, he will need later in solving adult problems.

Understandings attitudes and abilities needed in adult life

begin their growth in nursery and are developed through

continuously by experiences until the learner emerges into an

adult replaced by a wealth of suggested materials and

experiences.

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Curriculum may be defined as all the experiences that

pupils have under the direction of school. It includes both

classroom activities as well as play. All such activities

should promote the needs and welfare of the individual and

society.

There are certain broad areas of knowledge, skills and

appreciations with which all students must come into contact

and these must find a place in the curriculum.

The aim of education is to secure the harmonious

development of the personality - development of body, mind

and soul.

Observation method of learning is suggested for History

learning by Pestolozzi.

Learning in youth should always be a spontaneous process,

a result of free activity, a living and original products.

Inner capacities of the students should be developed. For

this, visiting monuments is an important process.

By visits, the pupils gain valuable mental exercises as

well as concrete experiences. Their minds profit by the

disciplinary activity. Their interest in the subject is

strengthened. They learn how and where to pursue their study

by this method. The studies illuminated by direct

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experiences ensure more meaning, more direct appeal and more

reality value.

Architecture, sculptures and paintings in the monuments

are three great arts which appeal to the spirit through the

eyes.

OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING HISTORY

The specific objectives of teaching history are as

follows:

1. To give proper conceptions of time, space and society

History reveals the conception of time, space and

society and the relationship that links the present with the

past, the local with the distant and personal and national

life with lives and cultures of other men and women elsewhere

in time and space.

2. To Promote Self Understanding

It is true that a person who does not understand himself

has not become fully human. To know who one is requires

historical perspective. The special interests and habits are

an outcome of his past interaction with a particular

environment.

3. To cultivate valuable intellectual attitudes

The study of history serves as a medium for cultivating

valuable intellectual attitudes. History stresses the need

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for objectivity in formulating judgement, the careful

weighing of evidence and the necessity for searching analysis

before a final decision is reached.

4. To broaden the intellect

Present and future are the two dimensions. History gives

a third dimension - a study of past - this is extremely

necessary for rational and objective thinking.

5. To socialise the pupils and give a sense of belongingness

The history teacher can impress on the minds of the

pupils how people have suppressed personal impulses in the

interest of harmonious social life. Well-informed and

enlightened citizens will be able to promote common welfare.

6. To impart mental training

The mental training stimulates thought, judgement and

discrimination and creates a scientific attitude in the

adolescent as a counterbalance to his emotional instability.

7. To built intelligent citizenship

One of the major objectives of -eaching history to the

children in the secondary school is to build intelligent

citizenship for democracy. A nation with democratic

institutions must produce a reasonably educated citizenry if

these institutions are to survive.

8. To teach moral principles

That moral training is one important function of the

teaching of history, everybody will concede. By the study of

the great saints, heroes and reformers, the child will learn

to be courageous, truthful, just and altruistic.

9. To cultivate forward look

The knowledge of history will bring to light factors

which govern the course of human affairs and also show that

the actual course of past events may be a more accurate

measure of what is possible than are the best laid schemes of

reformers.

10. To help in developing a philosophy of life

One of the purposes for studying history is that it

provides valuable insights into various possible schemes of

life-interpretation. A cultural conception of history shows

how tools, institutions and symbolic systems may be taken as

a key to the meaning of human affairs and so on.

Further it may be included in the objectives of teaching

history as to help resolve our contemporary social and

individual problems, to foster national feelings, to foster a

cosmopolitan outlook and to develop some useful mechanical

skills.

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HISTORY CURRICULUM AT SCHOOL LEVEL

Lower Primary Level - Standards I to IV

The children of first and second standards are, under

the new syllabus, studying environmental study. Family and

its members, important festivals in Tamil and human beings'

living places are the subject matter that the first standard

children have to study.

The second standard children learn on family and joint

family for the formation of society, local festivals and

national festivals like Independence Day, Children's Day and

Teachers' Day.

The third standard children study their District history

as local history. The third standard children in Tirunelveli

District learn on the History of Tirunelveli District. Some

historically important places are known to them. Sri

Nelliappar Temple at Tirunelveli and its musical pillars are

taught to them in history. History and other monuments of

Tirunelveli are dealt within III Std. Early Pandya rulers who

ruled over Tirunelveli particularly Nedunchelia Pandyan I are

being taught to them. Important cities like Tenkasi,

Courtallam, Sankarankoil, Ambasamudram and Tirunelveli are

included in the syllabus of III Std.

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The fourth standard children learn our culture and

heritage in history. Further they study about India and

World.

Upper Primary Level - Standards V to VII

The curriculum for the upper primary school level aims

to develop one's national patriotism. They learn about

sangam age and the administration of Tamil kings.

The fifth standard pupils learn our national movement in

history. They learn social science in which history, civics

and geography are dealt with.

The sixth standard pupils to learn about Tamil Kings and

Sangam Age in History. They learn Tamil Culture and the

administration of Chera, Chola, Pandya and Pallavas.

The Seventh Standard pupils, study about the later

imperial cholas from 850 to 1200 AD and later pandyas from

1200 AD to 1300 AD. They must have to learn the socio-

economic-religious and cultural conditions of Tamil Kingdoms.

Their contributions to art, architecture and fine arts are to

be dealt with by them.

Secondary Level - Standards VIII to X

The Vilith Standard pupils have the syllabus which

includes European settlements in India, Carnatic wars between

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French and British settlers. Rise and development of British

rule in India, Impact of economics, social reforms and the

method of Education in India under the British rule. The

First war of Independence in 1857 AD, Development of Indian

constitution Economic changes and social reforms, National

Integration and constitutional set up in Free India.

The syllabus for IX Std. pupils includes Stone Age,

River Valley Civilization, Vedic Civilization, Buddhism and

Jainism, and Civilisation of Greeks and Romans. The

religions of Jew and Christ, Medieval Europe and Present

Europe are to be dealt with.

The History syllabus for X Std. includes the Imperialism

in Europe, the Doctrines of Capitalism, Socialism and

Communism, First World War, League of Nation, World War II

and the origin of UNO. Regarding Indian History the Xth Std.

students have to study the reforms in social and religious

aspects. The national movement has to be learnt by them from

1885 AD to 1950 AD with unification of Indian territories and

the work of Vallabai Patel.

Higher Secondary Level - Standards XI and XII

The syllabus for XI Standard History students deals

with Indian History from the Stone Age to the fall of Lodi

Dynasty under the Delhi Sultanate Ibrahim Lodi in the first

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battle of Paniput in 1526 A.D. They aim to learn the

complete history of our country from the early periods.

Regarding the Tamilnadu History, the XI Standard Students

have to study the Sanyam Age, Imperial Cholas, Pallavas and

Pandyas.

The syllabus for XII Standard History students deals

with Indian History from the Mohul Empire 1526 AD to present

day. They have to learn modern Tamil Nadu History, and free

India and her economic growth and development.

SECTION VI: RELATED STUDIES

A very brief account of the studies most related to the

present investigation in terms of the theme 'Out-of--classroom

Activities as Learning Experiences' alone is presented

herewith.

"An Experimental Study of Teaching Physics by the

Traditional and Problem Solving Methods", carried out by

Kamalakanthan, T.S. (1968) shows that the X Std. pupils

taught through problem solving method have gained and

retained of knowledge and abilities in a better way as

compared to those who were taught by traditional methods.

"An Experimental Study of Teaching Natural Sciences at

the Primary Level in Central Schools" was carried out by

Sharma, N.D. (1978) with a view to compare the effectiveness

130

of the self activity and guided activity. Guided activity is

found more effective than self activity in respect of concept

formation, and development of scientific attitude and skills.

"An Experimental Comparison of Different Methods of

Teaching High School Biology" by Jha (1979) reveals that

activity-based approach in learning science is better in

terms of knowledge, application of scientific knowledge and

development of scientific skills.

Exemmal, J. (1980) conducted an investigation on

"Construction of Certain Models for Teaching School Botany

using Environmental and Ethnic Resources and Testing the

Efficacy of Such Models",. Teaching models were constructed

for six topics of Standard IX. The efficacy of these models

was tested experimentally using parallel group design. The

significant findings of the study are as follows:

i) The environmental approach is significantly superior to

the formal approach in terms of stimulating cognitive

growth, developing interest in scientific adtivities and

achievement in the examination.

ii) Environmental approach is found more favourable and

effective to rural and Low socio-economic status group

students as compared to their counterparts.

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iii) A majority of the teachers and experts suggest that even

higher level concepts could be taught in lower classes

if they are provided in the form of first hand

experiences.

A study on "Environmental Approach of Teaching in

Primary Schools" by Rajput, J.S., Saxena, A.B. and Jadhao,

V.G. (1980) indicates that environmental approach is

significantly better than the traditional approach in

creating environmental awareness.

An "Evaluative Study of State Level Science Fair and

Educational Exhibition - 1980" was carried out by SCERT

(1980). The study was conducted with a sample of ten

organisers, sixty teachers and two hundred pupil

participants. They were administered different

questionnaires. The significant findings of the study are as

follows:

i) More than 50% teachers feel that the themes selected for

the science fair were clearly brought out.

ii) Almost all pupil participants feel that the science fair

was helpful to clarify various concepts in science.

iii) The organisers feel that pupils' creativity was fully

exhibited in the fair.

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iv) Teachers feel that the fair was helpful in bringing out

students' creative talents.

v) The organisers and the teachers feel that the fair was

very effective as the students were able to learn many

new concepts which otherwise could not be easily taught

in the class-room.

vi) The pupil participants feel that the teachers use new

methods in teaching science after the science fair.

Joshi, B.P. (1981) made "A Study on Development of

Science Education for Upper Primary Classes based on the

Environmental Approach". It indicates that the environment

outside the school is potentially significant for learning

purposes.

"A Critical-Comparative Study of the Secondary School

Science Curricula of Kerala and Tamilnadu" by Krishnan, K.

(1981) reveals that both the curricula of Kerala and

Tamilnadu are not satisfactory in terms of two dimensions,

viz. Pedagogical-curricular and Methodological-

Instructional.

Deopuria, R.P. (1984) made "A Comparative Study of

Teaching Science through Environmental and Traditional

Approaches in the Schools of Madhyapradesh",. The study

employed environmental approach in the experimental group and

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the traditional approach in the control group. The study was

conducted at primary, middle and high school levels. The

significant findings of the study are as follows:

i) The experimental groups of standards VIII, IX and X

secured higher scores than the controlled groups.

ii) The experimental group of primary schools attained

considerable improvement in environmental awareness than

the controlled group.

A study by Savadamuthu, M. (1989) reveals the following

significant findings:

j ) The seventeen kinds of chemical-based small scale

industries in Dindigul District involved in the study

are found to possess curricular potentials for students'

chemistry learning at secondary and higher secondary

stages of education extensively.

ii) All the teachers and entrepreneurs involved in the study

are for students' learning chemistry in industries and

for permitting students for learning in their industries

respectively.

iii) Half the number of teachers are prepared to conduct even

special classes for making up the regular school work

which may be lost due to industrial visits.

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iv) A majority (58.8%) of entrepreneurs are prepared to

permit students to carry out experiments in their

industries even by bearing the cost of the chemicals.

V)

A majority (64.7%) of entrepreneurs are prepared to

permit students even during industries' working hours

and 29.4% prefer rest hours, while 5.9% prefer

industrial holidays.

vi) A greater majority (76.5%) of entrepreneurs are for

students' apprenticeship training in their industries

during summer holidays without any payment to the

students.

A study entitled, "An Vilith Literature Based

V.S.History Classroom: Reactions, Responses, Attitudes,

Perceptions and Participation" carried out by Elizabeth July

(1990) reveals that children are for cooperative learning and

varieties of learning activities.

"A Comprehensive Analysis of Teacher/School

Administrator Attitudes Toward Out-door Education/School

Camping Kyonggi" was done by Han, Eun Sok (1991), with a view

to: (1) diagnose teachers' and school administrator's

attitudes towards the value of outdoor education and school

camping and skill level necessary for conducting outdoor

education and school camping programmes. (2) identify broad

135

goals and programme objectives for school camping as well as

constraining factors based on the opinion of teachers and

school administrators. (3) ascertain variables that

influence teachers' and school administrators' attitudes

towards the outdoor education and school camping.

Among one thousand fifty questionnaires sent, seven

hundred and thirty three were received back and seven hundred

and twenty three responses were analysed by ANOVA, MANOVA and

factor analysis.

The significant findings of this study are as follows:

(1) In general, teachers and school administrators are quite

positive towards the value of outdoor education and

school camping.

(2) Teachers and school administrators are not equipped with

the knowledge and skills related to outdoor education

and school campaign.

(3) Among the seven constraining factors, uadministrative

difficulties and teacher inconvenience" were considered

the most potential.

(4) Several variables were found to influence teachers' and

school administrators' attitudes towards outdoor

education and school camping.

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Indirani,S. (1992) carried out ".A Critical-Comparative

Study of the Curricula of B.Sc. and M.Sc. Home Science

Courses in Tamilnadu".. The significant findings of the study

in terms of Methodological - instructional are as follows:

1. The B.Sc. and M.Sc. Home Science curricula of Madras

University are satisfactory and moderately satisfactory

respectively.

2. The B.Sc. of Bharathidasan University is moderately

satisfactory.

3. The B.Sc. and M.Sc. of Madurai Kamaraj University are

satisfactory and moderately satisfactory respectively.

4. Both the B.Sc. and M.Sc. of Gandhigram Rural University

as well as Avinashilingam Deemed University are

satisfactory.

5. The B.Sc. and M.Sc. of Tamilnadu Agricultural University

are satisfactory and moderately satisfactory respectively.

6. Both the B.Sc. and M.Sc. of Queen Mary's Autonomous

College are moderately satisfactory.

7. The B.Sc. of Seethalakshmi Rarnasamy College and Saradha

College are moderately satisfactory.

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A study by Sreekumar, V. (1992) reveals the following

significant findings:

1. The eighteen kinds of small scale industries situated in

Kanyakumari district and involved in the study are found

possessing excessive curricular potentials for students'

learning biology at secondary and higher secondary

stages.

2. All the teachers, entrepreneurs and parents are for

students' learning biology in industries, for permitting

students to learn biology in their industries and for

their wards to start their own industries respectively.

3. Half the number of teachers prefer students' learning in

industries during school holidays, while around half the

number of teachers are prepared to conduct special

classes for compensating the loss of regular work due to

industrial visits.

4. Half the number of entrepreneurs are intended to permit

students during industries' working hours and 26.7%

prefer rest hours, while 23.3% prefer industrial holidays.

5. A majority (53.3%) of the entrepreneurs are prepared to

permit students to carry-out experiments in their

industries even by bearing the material cost.

6. A majority (70%) of entrepreneurs are prepared to permit

students' apprenticeship training in their industries

during summer holidays without any payment to the

students.

7. Above half the number (54%) of parents are prepared to

permit their wards to visit industries during holidays

and 24% during morning, while 25% are for visits during

evening.

8. Half the number of parents are prepared to meet the

expenses for their wards' industrial visits.

A study by Grace, A.N. (1994) reveals the following

significant findings:

1. The 21 kinds of small scale industries situated in

Madurai district and involved in the study are found

endowed with extensive curricular potentials for

students' Physics learning at secondary and higher

secondary stages of education.

2. All the three types of personnel under study,

viz. Parents (95%), Teachers (91%) and Entrepreneurs

(78%) are for students' visits to industries for

learning purposes.

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3. A vast majority (78%) of the parents are for meeting the

cost of their wards' industrial visits and 73% have an

idea of encouraging their wards to start their own

industries.

4. About 46% of the teachers are for students' visits as

per the industries' convenience.

5. More than three fourth (78%) of the entrepreneurs intend

to permit students' visits during industries' working

hours.

6. A significant section (36%) of the entrepreneurs are

prepared to permit students to undergo apprenticeship

training without payment during summer holidays.

The studies presented above indicate that the out-of-

classroom activities as learning experiences can very well be

organised since all categories of personnel like teachers,

parents and entrepreneurs are for the same.

The review of literature presented above enabled the

investigator to conceive the design of the present study and

execute it successfully.