30

Chapter II

BUDDHIST LITERATURE

II.1. Preliminary Remarks

This chapter offers a brief account of the nature and growth of early

Buddhist literature and in particular gives a sketch of early Buddhist

literature and Mahāyāna literature. There are six broad sections in this

chapter with a number of sub-sections in each section. The first section

offers an introduction to this chapter with few preliminary remarks. The

second section gives a synoptic review of the proceedings of the first

four Buddhist Councils. In the first three Buddhist Councils, the

Tipiṭaka memorized more presents as the authentic text of the Buddhist

savings and teachings during His wandering for the forty-five years of

his life after the Buddha became the Enlightened One. The third section

deals with the language or languages used for the Buddhist texts. The

fourth section offers a short survey of the early Buddhist literature

which consists of Nikāya and five Āgamas. The fifth section is devoted

to the discussion of Mahāyāna literature and briefly introduces

Mahāyāna Sūtras. The second sub-section of the fifth section offers a

brief outline of the eleven Mahāyāna Sūtras which are of significance in

the contextual framework of the present study. These four sections of

the second chapter have offered the necessary detailed information

31

Buddhist literature relevant to the present study. The six section give a

synoptic summing up of the contents of the second chapter.

II.2. BUDDHIST COUNCILS

There are several assemblies convened in the past twenty-five centuries

after the death of the Buddha to recite the approved texts of the Buddhist

scriptures and to settle doctrinal disputes. There is a very little reliable

evidence of the historicity of the councils, and not all councils are

recognized by all the traditions.

After the Buddha's Nirvāṇa, all His teachings were recited fully

in the First Buddhist Council. Then there are the numbers of other

Buddhist Councils to confirm the integrity of the Buddha’s Teachings

and the expressed views in specific periods. The Buddhist Councils are

the basis for reserved teachings of the Buddha.

During the life of the Buddha, he taught directly to sentient

beings to practice and attain enlightenment. All measures of the

Teaching of the Buddha were remembered by Elder Ānanda, a trusted

attendant of the Buddha. The sermons preached but not heard by

monastic Ānanda, were fully recited by the Buddha to Ānanda for him

to memorise. Ānanda was the guardian of dharma.12 Therefore, Ānanda

preserved the treasure of the teachings of the Buddha in their fullness in

his memory.13 That is sūtra.

As for the Vinaya, Thera Upāli memorized all the rules devised

for the Saṃgha by the Buddha. Upāli is one of the ten chief disciples of

the Buddha. He was the foremost disciple on the account of his learning

the rules of the order (śīla). The whole sūtra were recited by Ānanda, all

of Vinaya was recited by Upāli in the First Buddhist Council. After that, 12 Nyanaponika & Hellmuth Hecker, Great Disciples of the Buddha, p. 137. 13 Nyanaponika & Hellmuth Hecker, Great Disciples of the Buddha, p. 138-179.

32

the five hundred of Arhant Bhikkhus, who attended this Council,

memorized and recited them for others.

Thus, the Buddha’s Teachings were passed on from generations

to generations by word of mouth and memory. After a period of several

generations, around 500-600 years since the Buddha's Nirvāṇa, in the

fifth century BC to the first century BC in the Fourth Buddhist Council.

The Buddha’s Sūtra teachings were written down in script and are

preserved in the same format until now.

During this long period, erroneousness crept into the Teaching of

the Buddha. The original teaching was certainly not going to be

retained. That is why, from the First to the Second Buddhist Council, the

Saṃgha was divided and formations of new schools with different views

commenced. The original scriptures are no longer available; instead,

there are certain discrepancies in the school of Buddhism. In spite of all

the differences in the Buddhist Councils, the Buddhist scriptures is the

one way system through which the three treasures of Tipiṭaka are

preserved until today. Of the many Buddhist Councils, the most notable

are the Four Councils, which are mentioned below:

II.2.1. The First Buddhist Council

According to the scriptures of all Buddhist schools, the first Buddhist

Council was held soon after the Buddha’s Nirvāṇa, dated by the

majority of recent scholars around 400 BC, under the patronage of King

Ajātaśatru with the Elder Mahākāśyapa presiding, at Sattapanni caves

in Rājagaha (now called Rajgir - Bihar)

The First Buddhist Council (Saṅgīti) is said to have taken place

during the first rainy season three months after the Buddha’s Nirvāṇa.

Compilations were made of vinaya (monastic discipline), under the

33

direction of the Elder Upāli, and of the sūtras, under the direction of the

disciple Ānanda. The entire assembly of 500 monks then recited the

approved texts. It is accepted by critical scholarship that the first council

settled the Dharma and the Vinaya and there is no ground for the view

that the Abhidhamma formed part of the canon adopted there.

The teachings that had been agreed upon at the First Buddhist

Council were carried away from Rājagaha in the memorized form to

various places, where the scattered Saṅgha had become established.

Then, the translation of these texts from the common language of

Rājagaha, which possibly was Māgadhi, into the various local

languages was done. Those who were absent at the Council, reserved the

preference to decline the parts of the canon they saw fit and present their

own versions of the Master's teachings. This liberal environment

allowed the development of various forms of discipline, religious

practice and philosophical interpretation indicating the Buddha as the

originator.

II.2.2. The Second Buddhist Council

The Second Buddhist Council (Mahāsaṅgīti) was held at Vaisali a

century after the passing of the Buddha. The time recorded should be

taken as a round number. It is recorded in the Cullavagga that the monks

of the Vajji country were in the habit of practicing the Ten Points (dasa

vatthuni)14 which were regarded as unorthodox by Elder Yasa, the son

of Kakandaka. Elder Yasa declared these practices to be illegal and

immoral in the extreme.15

14 Siṅgiloṇakappa, dvaṅgulakappa, gāmantarakappa, āvāsakappa, anumatikappa, āciṇṇakāppa,

amathikakappa, jalogiṃ-pātuṃ, adasakaṃ-nisidanaṃ, jātarūparajataṃ 15 These Ten Points were: (1) The practice of carrying salt in a horn for use when needed. (2) The

practice of taking food after midday. (3) The practice of going to a neighboring village and taking a second meal the same day (the offence of overeating). (4) The observance of Uposothas in different

34

The Vajjian monks, however, pronounced the penalty of

paṭisāraṇīya-kamma upon him. This necessitated the offender's

apologizing to the laity who had been forbidden by Elder Yasa to carry

out the precepts of the Vajjian monks.

Elder Yasa defended his own view before the laity and by his

eloquent advocacy won them over to his side. This increased the fury of

the offending monks who pronounced the punishment of ukkhepanīya-

kamma upon him, which meant his virtual expulsion from the

Brotherhood. Elder Yasa openly declared these practices to be unlawful.

Wishing to settle the matter, he gathered support from monks of

other regions, mainly the west and south. Elder Revata suggested that

they would settle the dispute at the place of its origin. Thus, a group of

Bhikṣus consented to go to Vesāli to settle the matter. After considerable

manoeuvering, a meeting was held, attended by 700 monks. A council

of eight was appointed to consider the matter. This consisted of four

locals and four 'westerners'; but some of the locals had already been

secretly won over to the westerners' case. Each of the ten points was

referred to various canonical precedents. They presented this finding to

the assembly, who consented unanimously. The canonical accounts end

there.

Therefore, the Second Buddhist Council made the unanimous

decision not to relax any of the rules, and censured the behavior of the

monks, who were accused of violating the ten points. A majority of the

council voted against the Vaiśālī rules, whereupon the defeated minority

of monks withdrew and formed the Mahāsaṅghika School.

places within the same parish. (5) The practice of performing an ecclesiastical act and obtaining its sanction afterwards. (6) The practice of using customary practices as precedents. (7) The practice of drinking milk whey after meals. (8) The drinking of fermented palm juice that is not yet toddy. (9) The use of a borderless sheet for sitting. (10) The acceptance of gold or silver.

35

II.2.3. The Third Buddhist Council

Third Buddhist council was convened in about 250 BC at Asokarama in

Pataliputra, supposedly under the patronage of Emperor Asoka. A grave

question mark hangs over this though as Asoka never mentioned it in his

edicts, which one might have expected if he had called the council.

The traditional reason for convening the Third Buddhist Council

is reported to have been to rid the Saṃgha of corruption and bogus

monks who held heretical views. It was presided over by the Elder

Moggaliputta-Tissa and one thousand monks participated in the

Council. The council is recognized and known to both the Theravāda

and Mahāyāna schools, though its importance is central only to the

Theravāda school.1 Tradition has it that Asoka had won his throne

through shedding the blood of his entire father's sons except his own

brother, Tissa Kumara, who eventually got ordained and achieved

Arahantship.

Thera Moggaliputta-Tissa headed the proceedings and chose one

thousand monks from the sixty thousand participants for the traditional

recitation of the Dharma and the Vinaya, which went on for nine

months. The Emperor, himself questioned monks from a number of

monasteries about the teachings of the Buddha. Those who held wrong

views were exposed and expelled from the Saṃgha immediately. In this

way the Bhikṣu Saṃgha was purged of heretics and bogus Bhikṣus.

In this Council, the discussion is not limited to Śīla alone, but

also concerned with Dhamma. Finally, the chairperson Moggaliputta-

Tissa compiled Kathāvatthu (book of these differences) to refute the

theory of wrong sect. The term Theravāda appeared for the first time,

Abhidhamma was also mentioned the first time in the meeting. There is

36

a legend that the Tripiṭaka was written down,16 but this issue is

controversial to many scholars.

After the meeting, Asoka's son, Thero Mahinda, brought all

Tripiṭaka to Sri Lanka. The classic brought to Sri Lanka is preserved

until today without the loss of any page. Scriptures are written in Pāli,

which is based on Magadhi preached by the Buddha. After this meeting,

Asoka sent messengers who spread to Sri Lanka and some other

countries.

II.3.4. The Fourth Buddhist Council:

Buddhism had two fourth councils belonging to different schools.

II.3.4.1. The Fourth Buddhist Council in Sri Lanka

Theravāda had the Fourth Buddhist Council in Sri Lanka in the

first century BC during the time of King Vattagamani-Abaya (103-77

BC). The main reason for its convening was the realization that it was

now not possible for the majority of monks to retain the entire Tipiṭaka

in their memories as had been the case formerly, the case of Elder

Mahinda and those who followed him soon after. Therefore, the art of

writing had developed substantially it was thought expedient and

necessary to have the entire body of the Buddha's teaching written. King

Vattagamani supported the monk's idea and a council was held

specifically to commit the entire Tipiṭaka to writing, so that the genuine

Dhamma might be lastingly preserved. To this purpose, the Elder

Maharakkhita and five hundred monks recited the words of the Buddha

and then wrote them down on palm leaves. The Tipiṭaka was for the first

time in the history of Buddhism committed to writing at Aluvihara in Sri

Lanka. After the Council, palm leaves books appeared. 16 W.Rahula, History of Buddhism in Ceylon, p. 33f.

37

II.3.4.2. The Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir

For Sarvāstivāda tradition, Buddhism has been convened by the

Kushan emperor Kanishka (127-151 CE) in the first century CE at

Kashmir. The Mahāyāna tradition based some of its scriptures on

(refutations of) the Sarvastivadin Abhidharma texts, which were

systematized at this council.

King Kanishka gathered 500 monks headed by Vasumitra,

partly, it seems, to compile extensive commentaries on the

Sarvastivadin Abhidharma, although it is possible that some editorial

work was carried out upon the existing canon itself. The main fruit of

this Council was the vast commentary known as the Mahā-Vibhāshā

(Great Exegesis), an extensive compendium and reference work on a

portion of the Sarvāstivādin Abhidharma which was translated from

earlier Prakrit vernacular languages (such as Gandhari in Kharosthi

script) into the classical language of Sanskrit.

Some scholars believe that it was also around this time that a

significant change was made in the language of the Sarvastivadin Canon

by converting an earlier Prakrit version into Sanskrit.

The Fourth Buddhist Council belonged to two Buddhist

traditions: Theravāda and Mahāyāna in particular. There are more

Buddhist Councils that were held, but they hold no significant value.

II.3. LANGUAGE OF BUDDHIST SCRIPTURE

After the Buddha’s passing away, the Buddhist literature has

been divided into several schools as Hīnayāna, Mahāyāna, and

Vajrachara. Those schools considered both the Buddha's discourses, as

well as those of the Buddha's disciples, to be Buddhavacana17. The

17Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Vol.1, Macmillan, p. 142.

38

Buddhist literature was written into scripture and has been circulated to

now. The original Buddhist teachings and the original writings were in

the languages of the region of India that Siddhartha Gautama was from.

They are in Sanskrit and Pāli, and those languages are important to

studying the original texts. However, they have been translated several

times. Buddhism has spread around the world and Buddhists speak their

own languages as: Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Burmese,

Thai, English, the languages of India and others. There is no official

Buddhist language, so Buddhists use their native language.

The classic Buddhist treasures currently have been stored in

multiple languages. Over the time, Buddhist scriptures were recorded in

different languages. According to Theravāda and Mahāyāna traditions,

after the Third Buddhist Council, the Buddhist literature was written

down.

II.3.1. Early Buddhist Texts

The time of Early Buddhism was the best as the Dharma was

pure and the Saṃgha was united, not divided into sects. The time of the

Buddha and about 200 years after the Buddha’s passing away is the

period that covers the most primitive forms of the Buddha’s Teaching.

This is the basis of the fundamental tenets of Mahāyāna, Theravāda

later.

At the end of the 19th century, Western scholars began to study

the Pāli scriptures and declared Theravāda is closest to the Buddha’s

sūtra teaching. Earlier, the Chinese scholars and Japanese were not

aware of the existence of the Pāli canon, so they did not understand that

these sacred scriptures are like the Āgama, and translated these ancient

39

Chinese scriptures as the "Hīnayāna Theravāda.” Therefore, āgama as

the Hīnayāna Tipaṭaka scriptures means very low level.

There are many different opinions about the names of pure

Buddhism. Firstly, the English scholar Thomas William Rhys Davids

(1843-1922) called it as Early Buddhism. Then, a Japanese scholar

Kimura Taiken translated Early Buddhism as Theravāda Buddhism. In

English, normally Theravāda should have been Primitive Buddhism, but

because the word Primitive means the first, it also involves the

definition: Early-uncivilized. Therefore, it is considered to be a

susceptible word implying inferiority, so the Western scholars usually

avoid using Primitive, but use the term "Early Buddhism.”

The term “Early Buddhism” in English appeared towards the end

of the nineteenth century. The translators of the association of “The Pāli

Text Society” adopted the translation - the “Early Buddhism”, for

Theravāda Buddhism which means Buddhism in the first period, basic

Buddhism or original Buddhism. The Pāli Sūttas are translated into

“Early Buddhist Texts or Canon.”

According to Thera Wilegoda Ariyadeva, early Buddhism is

understood in his work, the Theory and Practice of Social Revolution in

Early Buddhism, as ‘the Buddhism of the five Nikāyas.’ In other words,

the teachings of the Buddha included in the five Nikāyas is called early

Buddhism.18 Therefore, the term ‘Early Buddhism’ is used for the

Buddhism of the five Nikāyas.19

In Theravāda Buddhism, the standard collection of

Buddhavacana is the Pāli Canon. These are mainly of Indian origin, and

18 Wilegoda Ariyadeva Thera, the Theory and Practice of Social Revolution in Early Buddhism, p. 8. 19 Loc. Cit.,

40

were written during the Fourth Buddhist Council in Sri Lanka in 29 BC,

about four hundred and fifty four years after the death of the Buddha.

Some scholars believe that some portions of the Pāli Canon and

Āgamas could contain the actual substance of the historical teachings of

the Buddha. Although many versions of the texts of the Early Buddhist

Schools exist, the most complete canon to survive is the Pāli Canon of

the Theravadin School, which preserved the texts in the Pāli language.

In addition, large parts of the Sarvāstivāda and Dharmaguptaka texts

are extant.

Pāli is considered one of the dialects of Middle Indo-Aryan. It

appears that the Pāli used in early Buddhist Scriptures was the one that

followed in Theravāda Buddhism practiced in Sri Lanka, Myanmar,

Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, and it has many features common to

other Indo-Aryan dialects as well.

After the Third Buddhist Council, King Aśoka has launched

efforts to spread Buddhism to other countries, the first and most

important was the delegation led by Thera Mahindra to Sri Lanka. Since

then, Buddhism has existed in Sri Lanka and developed with the spread

of the Pāli Tipaṭaka. Then complete Pāli Tipaṭaka was edited and it still

exists in the same form to this day. Buddhism in Sri Lanka is not

affected by the Buddhist sects in India. Besides, in Myanmar, Pāli

Tipaṭaka has a very significant value.

II.3.2. Mahāyāna Texts

About two centuries after the Buddha's passing away, the

literature of early Buddhism partly was written in Sanskrit and partly in

the dialect of Central India and then it was assimilated into Buddhist

Sanskrit which was dubbed as the “mixed Sanskrit.” It is mixed with

41

Prakrit language and is not in pure Sanskrit. It can be found probably at

two academic centers at Nalanda University and Takkasila (Taxila), of

Northern and Northwestern India.

Around the beginning of the 2nd century BC, pure Buddhist

Sanskrit literature began to appear, most notably due to the schism in the

Saṃgha. Besides the 1st to 3rd Buddhist Council, the 4th Buddhist

Council was mentioned in the Mahavamsa of Ceylon, for Theravadins

did not attend the congress and did not accept this. Unfortunately, those

argument organs of the other schools were lost, except the text is still

maintained in Sri Lanka, China and Tibet as the Abhidhamma of

Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda.

Mahāyāna Buddhism arose and developed with Mahāyāna Texts

bearing the origin in India. Some scholars believe Mahāyāna arose in

the first century BC,20 but still not completely established.21

D.T. Suzuki has stated that it does not matter if the Mahāyāna

Sūtras can be historically linked to the Buddha or not, since Mahāyāna

is a living tradition and its teachings are followed by millions of

people.22

II.3.2.1. Sanskrit Buddhist Texts

In the olden times, Sanskrit was used to write Mahāyāna

literature. The archaeologists in India have found some pieces of

Mahāyāna Sūtras. The earliest Mahāyāna Sūtras are the very first

versions of the Prajñāpāramitā series system, which were composed in

the 1st century BC in the South of India.23 Some early Mahāyāna Sūtras

were translated by the Kuṣāṇa monk Lokakṣema (zh. 支婁迦讖), who 20 Skilton, A. T. Dating the Samadhiraja Sūtra, Journal of Indian Philosophy, vol.27, p. 635. 21 Akira, Hirakawa, tr.&ed. Groner, Paul, A History of Indian Buddhism, p. 260. 22 D. T. Suzuki, Outline of Mahāyāna Buddhism, p. 15. 23 Akira, Hirakawa, tr.&ed. Groner, Paul, A History of Indian Buddhism, pp. 263,253,268.

42

came to China from the kingdom of Gandhāra. His first translations to

Chinese from Sanskrit in the Chinese capital of Luoyang are between

178 and 189 CE.24

Some earliest Mahāyāna Sūtra were written in Sanskrit as:

Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra,

Akṣobhyatathāgatasyavyūha Sūtra, Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra,

Mañjuśrīparipṛcchā Sūtra, Drumakinnararājaparipṛcchā Sūtra,

Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra, Bhadrapāla Sūtra,

Ajātaśatrukaukṛtyavinodana Sūtra, Kāśyapaparivarta Sūtra,

Lokānuvartana Sūtra, Avataṃsaka Sūtra. These were translated to

Chinese during the 2nd century CE.25

Āgama is a collection of Early Buddhist scriptures. The five

Āgamas together comprise the Sūtra Piṭaka of the early Buddhist

schools. The various schools had different recensions of each Āgama.

Āgamas of various schools are preserved in Chinese translation, and

portions survive in Tibetan translation, and in Sanskrit.

During the process of formation and development, Sanskrit

literature underwent three periods, and the third period is the period of

Buddhist literature. In Buddhist literature, there are two main sections,

such as Pāli and Sanskrit. In the Buddhist literature, Sanskrit literature

appeared later. According to some scholars, it appeared possibly due to

schism from the period of Councils, along with the development of

Mahāyāna Buddhism.

Sanskrit literature of Mahāyāna Buddhism actually

foreshadowed the Second Buddhist Council. It was formulated and

developed by the time of the Fourth Buddhist Council. In addition, a

24 Encyclopedia of Buddhism, ed. Macmillan, p. 492. 25 Akira, Hirakawa, tr.&ed. Groner, Paul, A History of Indian Buddhism, pp. 248-251.

43

number of Buddhist Sanskrit works had already appeared in the 2nd

century BC, by which time Pāli had become blurred and weak.

Nevertheless, in the Second and Third Buddhist Councils some

debate about Sūtra and Abhidharma, took but was not completed. Until

the 2nd century BC, Buddhist Sanskrit literature began to influence and

gain popularity, from then until the 4th century CE and it had started

growing influence in most parts of India until the 12th century. This

Council was marked by a historical landmark of the apprearence of

Mahāyāna Buddhism.

II.3.2.2. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Texts

Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit language is Middle Indo-Aryan literary

language, a Prākrit dialect heavily infiltrated with Sanskrit, in which the

texts of the northern Buddhist scriptures were written. It was developed

before the Christian era. Its Sanskrit influence originated in the

Mahāyāna Buddhists’ use of Sanskrit in their writings.

Hybrid Sanskrit, Pāli, and Sanskrit, thus become the major

vehicles of the Buddhist thought. The prestige attached to Sanskrit and

the ever-growing numbers of Brahmins entering monasteries would

have contributed to acceptance and use of Sanskrit as an important

language of theological exposition among Buddhists, whose leaders

originally wanted them all to use the dialects, the language of common

people. It sometimes is called ‘Buddhist Sanskrit’ or ‘Mixed Sanskrit.’

Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit writings emerged after the codification

in the 4th century BC of Classical Sanskrit by the scholar Pāṇini. His

standardized version of the language that had evolved from the ancient

Vedic came to be known as Sanskrit (meaning ‘refined’, or ‘completely

44

formed’). Prior to this, Buddhist teachings are not known to have

generally been recorded in the language of the Brahmanical elites.

The term Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit owes its usage and definition

largely to the scholarship of Franklin Edgerton. Buddhist Hybrid

Sanskrit is primarily studied in the modern world in order to study the

Buddhist teachings that it records, and to study the development of

Indo-Aryan languages. Edgerton reports:

"Thousands of words were used which are unknown in

Sanskrit, or not used there with the same meanings. To this

curious language, which became widespread in North India, I

have given the name Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit…there is no

reason to assume any single 'original language of

Buddhism'.”26

However, earlier works, mostly from the Mahāsāṃghika School, use a

form of ‘mixed Sanskrit’ in which the original Prakrit has been

incompletely Sanskritised, with the phonetic forms being changed to the

Sanskrit versions, but the grammar of Prakrit being retained.27

Not all Buddhist usage of Sanskrit was of the hybrid form: some

translated works (e.g. by the Sarvāstivādin school) were in classical

Sanskrit. There were also later works composed directly in Sanskrit and

written in a simpler style than the classical literature, as well as works of

kavya in the ornate classical style such as the Buddhacarita.28

II.3.2.3. Chinese Buddhist Texts

According to the legend, Emperor Ming of Han (58-75 CE)

dreamt of a Yellow God, who is the Buddha. Following Emperor Ming's

26 Edgerton, Franklin, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Language and Literature, p. 56. 27 T. Burrow, The Sanskrit Language, p. 61. 28 Loc. Cit.,

45

dream vision about the Buddha who established Buddhism in India, two

of Ming's emissaries departed to search for Buddhist scriptures. Two

Indian monks named Kasyapa Matanga and Dharmaratna came to the

capital Luo-Yang by invitation of mission of Emperor Ming of Han in

65 CE.

They translated the Buddhist classics at the White Horse Temple

(白馬寺) at LuoYang. They translated many scriptures; the first

translation from Sanskrit to Chinese is the Sūtra of Forty-two Chapters

(四十二章經), which was translated by Kasyapa Matanga. This was the

first Buddhist Sūtra in Chinese language and has the pride of place in

the history of Chinese Buddhism. Dharmaratna translated the 'Dasa

Bhūmi', apart from five others.

The famous monk Kumārajīva (334-413 CE) was a Kuchean

Buddhist monk, scholar, and translator. He came to China and carried

out his later life for translating Buddhist Texts from Sanskrit to Chinese.

Kumārajīva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism with his high quality

translations (from 402-413 CE), which are still praised for their flowing

smoothness, clarity of meaning, subtlety, and literary skill. The arrival

of Kumārajīva set a standard for Chinese translations of Buddhist texts.

The most significant of his translations are Diamond Sūtra, Amitābha

Sūtra, Lotus Sūtra, Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra, Mūlamadhyamakakārikā,

and Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra.

Xuanzang (玄奘) (600-664 AD) is a Chinese Buddhist monk,

scholar, traveller, and translator who described the interaction between

China and India in the early Tang Dynasty. He became famous for his

seventeen-year overland journey to India, which is recorded in detail in

the classic Chinese text Great Tang Records on the Western Regions

46

(大唐西域記). He returned to China in 645 AD, devoted his energy to

translating Buddhist texts from Sanskrit to Chinese until his death.

During the time of Buddhism spread and developed in China, the

classics were translated and which form a treasure of classic Buddhist

Chinese text known as Zhaocheng Jin Tipaṭaka (赵城金大藏经). China

is considered to be Paradise of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Mahāyāna

Buddhism (it means the headquarters) influenced in China, Vietnam,

Japan, South Korea and others. Particularly in Japan, Taishō Tipaṭaka is

very famous and edited carefully by a group of Buddhist scholars.

Taishō has a great significance for the study of Mahāyāna.

II.3.3. Vajrayāna Texts

It is the special school of Mahāyāna which refers to the use of

the mantra to prevent the mind from going astray into the world of its

fictions and their attendant verbiage and to remain aware of reality as

such.

In the Tantric view, enlightenment arises from the realization

that seemingly opposite principles are in truth one. The passive concepts

Śūnyatā (emptiness) and prajñā, for example, must be resolved with the

active karuṇā (compassion) and upayā (skillful-means). This

fundamental polarity and its resolution are often expressed through

symbols of sexuality.

The first tantric Buddhist texts appeared in India in the 3rd

century and continued to appear till the 12th century.29 Scholars such as

Hirakawa Akira assert that the Vajrayāna probably came into existence

in the 6th or 7th century,30 while the term Vajrayāna itself first appeared

29 Williams, Paul & Tribe, Anthony , Buddhist Thought: A complete introduction to the Indian

tradition, p. 194 30 Akira, Hirakawa, tr.&ed. Groner, Paul, A History of Indian Buddhism, p. 9.

47

in the 8th century. The Vajrayāna was preceded by the Mantrayāna, and

then followed by the Sahajayāna and Kalacakrayāna.31

The period of Indian Vajrayāna Buddhism has been classified as

the fifth32 or final period of Indian Buddhism. The literature of

Vajrayāna is absent from the oldest Buddhist literature of the Pāli

Canon and the Āgamas.

The historical origin of Vajrayāna is unclear, except that it

coincided with the spread of the mentalistic schools of Buddhism. It

flourished from the 6th to the 11th century and exerted a lasting influence

on the neighbouring countries of India.

In 747 CE, Indian Master Padmasambhava travelled from

Afghanistan to bring Vajrayāna Buddhism to Tibet and Bhutan, at the

request of the King of Tibet. This was the original transmission which

anchors the lineage of the Nyingma School. During the 11th century and

early 12th century CE, a second important transmission occurred with

the lineages of Atisa, Marpa and Brogmi, giving rise to the other schools

of Tibetan Buddhism, namely Sakya, Kadam, Kagyu, Jonang, and

Geluk.

Subsequently, the transcriptions of Mahāyāna Sanskrit were

wholly transcribed only phonetically and stored in Tibetan, but not

translated into Tibetan. From these transcriptions, then, proceeded the

translations into Tibetan. Thus, these treasures of Tibetan Mahāyāna are

complete.

Vajrayāna texts exhibit a wide range of literary characteristics -

usually a mix of verse and prose, usually in Sanskrit that ‘transgresses

frequently against classical norms of grammar and usage,’ although

31 Schumann, Hans Wolfgang, Buddhism: an outline of its teachings and schools, p. 163. 32 Akira, Hirakawa, tr.&ed. Groner, Paul, A History of Indian Buddhism, p. 9.

48

occasionally in various Middle Indic dialects or elegant classical

Sanskrit.

Though we do not know precisely at present just how many

Indian tantric Buddhist texts survive today in the language in which they

were written, their number is certainly over one thousand five hundred;

perhaps over two thousand. A large part of this body of texts has been

translated into Tibetan, and a smaller part into Chinese. Apart from

these, there are perhaps another two thousand or more works that are

known today only from such translations. We can be certain as well that

many others are lost to us forever, in whatever form. Of the texts that

survive, a very small proportion has been published; an almost

insignificant percentage has been edited or translated reliably.

II.4. EARLY BUDDHIST LITERATURE

Early Buddhist Literature is those schools into which the

Buddhist monastic saṅgha initially split, due originally to differences in

vinaya, and later due to doctrinal differences and geographical

separation of groups of monks.

The voluminous Tipiṭaka, which contains the essence of the

Buddha’s Teaching, is estimated to be about eleven times the size of the

Bible. The word Tipiṭaka means three Baskets. They are the Baskets of

Discipline (Vinaya Piṭaka), the Basket of Discourses (Sūtta Piṭaka) and

the Basket of Ultimate Doctrines (Abhidhamma Piṭaka)

II.4.1. NIKĀYA

II.4.1.1. Sūtta Piṭaka

The Sūtta Piṭaka, one of the Tipiṭaka (three baskets) that are composed

in the Pāli language, is the standard collection of scriptures in the

49

Theravāda Buddhist tradition.33 It is the most complete extant early

Buddhist canon,34 mostly ascribed to the Buddha, but for some part to

His disciples.

The Sūtta Piṭaka consists chietly of instructive discourses

delivered by the Buddha to both the Saṃgha and the laity on various

occasions. Few courses are expended by disciples such the Venerable

Śāriputra and Ānanda. These discourses are incorporated and are

accorded as much veneration as the word of the Buddha Himself. Sūtta

Piṭaka may be compared to a book of prescriptions. The Buddha would

give a detailed reply when he knew the inquirer to be an earnest seeker

after the Truth.

II.3.1.1.1. Dīghanikāya (Long Discourses)

Digha Nikāya corresponds to the Dīrgha Āgama. There are 34 long

sūttas in this Nikāya.

II.3.1.1.2. Majjhima Nikāya (Middle Length Discourses)

There are 152 medium-length discourses attributed to the Buddha and

his chief disciples. Majjhima Nikāya corresponds to the Madhyama

Āgama

II.3.1.1.3. Saṃyutta Nikāya (Connected Discourses)

There are, according to one reckoning, 2,889,35 but according to the

commentary 7,762, shorter sūttas in this Nikāya. Saṃyutta Nikāya

corresponds to the Saṃyukta Āgama.

II.3.1.1.4. Aṅguttara Nikāya (Numerical Discourses)

These teachings are arranged numerically. It includes, according to the

commentary's reckoning, 9,565 short sūttas grouped by numbers from

ones to elevens. Anguttara Nikāya corresponds to the Ekottara Āgama. 33 Gombrich, Theravāda Buddhism, p. 3. 34 Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 3. 35 Following the editor of the PTS.

50

II.3.1.1.5. Khuddaka Nikāya (Minor Collection)

The fifth Nikāya is subdivided into following fifteen books. This is a

heterogeneous mix of sermons, doctrines, and poetry attributed to the

Buddha and his disciples:

II.3.1.1.5.1. Khudaka Pātha (Shorter Texts)

II.3.1.1.5.2. Dhammapada (Way of Truth)

II.3.1.1.5.3. Udāna (Peans of Joy)

II.3.1.1.5.4. Itivuttaka (Thus Said Discourses)

II.3.1.1.5.5. Sūtta Nipāta (Collected Discourses)

II.3.1.1.5.6. Vimāna Vatthu (Stories of Celestial Mansions)

II.3.1.1.5.7. Peta Vatthu (Stories of Petas)

II.3.1.1.5.8. Theragāthā (Psalms of the Brethren)

II.3.1.1.5.9. Therīgathā (Psalms of the Sisters)

II.3.1.1.5.10. Jātaka (Birth Stories of the Bodhisattva)

II.3.1.1.5.11. Niddesa (Expositions)

II.3.1.1.5.12. Patisambhidā (Book on Analytical Knowledge)

II.3.1.1.5.13. Apadāna (Lives of Arahants)

II.3.1.1.5.14. Budhavaṁsa (History of the Buddha)

II.3.1.1.5.15. Cariya Piṭaka (Modes of Conduct)

Khuddaka Piṭaka was the repository for materials that were left

out of the four Āgamas/Nikāyas and thus included both early and later

Texts.36

II.4.1.2. Vinaya Piṭaka

The Vinaya Piṭaka, which is regarded as the sheet anchor of the holy

order, deals with the rules and regulations of the order of Bhikkhus

(Monks) and Bhikkhunis (Nuns). For nearly twenty years after the

36 Hirakawa Akira, A History of Indian Buddhism, p. 128.

51

Enlightenment of the Buddha, no definite rules were laid down for

control and discipline of the Saṃgha (Order), subsequently as the

occasion arise, the Buddha promulgated rules for the future discipline of

the Saṃgha. Reasons for the promulgation of rules, their various

implication and specific Vinaya ceremonies of the Saṃgha are fully

described in the Vinaya Piṭaka.

Vinaya Piṭaka is mostly concerned with the rules of the saṃgha,

both of monks and nuns that was preceded by stories telling how the

Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and

analysis. This piṭaka can be divided into three parts:37

II.3.1.2.1 Sūttavibhaṅga: commentary in the Patimokkha with

Mahāvibhaṅga (Dealing with Monks) and Bhikkhunīvibhaṅga (Dealing

with Nuns).

II.3.1.2.2. Khandhaka: Mahavagga (Greater Section), Cullavagga

(Lesser Section), contais 22 chapters on various topics.

II.3.1.2.3. Parivāra: (Epitome of the Valley) analyses the rules from

various points of view.

II.4.1.3. Abhidhamma Piṭaka

Abhidhamma Piṭaka is the most important and most interesting of the

three containing as it does the profound philosophy of the Buddha’s

Teaching in contrast to the simpler Discourses in the Sūtta Piṭaka.

Abhidhamna the Higher doctrine of the Buddha, expands the

quintessence of this profound teachings. The Abhidhamma Piṭaka is

attributed to the Buddha Himself.

Abhidhamma Piṭaka is a collection of texts, which give a

systematic philosophical description of the nature of mind, matter and

37 The Book of the Discipline, Part I, tr. I.B. Horner, pp. 36-37.

52

time. It is a detailed scholastic reworking of material appearing in the

sūttas, according to schematic classifitions. There are seven books as:38

II.3.1.3.1. Dhammasaṅgaṇi (Sumary of Dharma) is a manual of ethics

for monks. It begins with a mātikā which lists classification of dharma.

Its content is in four parts.

II.3.1.3.2. Vibhaṅga (Division of Classification): consists of 18 chapters,

each dealing with a different topic.

II.3.1.3.3. Dhātukathā (Discussion of Elements): covers both the matika

and various topics, mostly from the Vibhaṅga, relating them to the 5

aggregates, 12 bases and 18 elements.

II.3.1.3.4. Paññatti (Designation of Person): This begins with some

standard lists but then continues with lists of persons grouped

numerically from ones to tens. This latter portion of the matika is then

explained in the main body of the work. It lists human characteristics

encountered in the stages of the Buddhist path.

II.3.1.3.5. Kathāvatthu (Points of Controversy): consists of more than

200 debates on questions of doctrine. The questions are initially put

from the wrong view point, and are then answered in such a way as to

refute them. It is the only portion attributed to a specific author,

Moggaliputta.

II.3.1.3.6. Yamaka (Pairs): consists of ten chapters, each dealing with a

different topic.

II.3.1.3.7. Paṭṭhāna (Activations or Causes): deals with 24 conditions in

relation to the matika.

38 Hoiberg, Dale H., ed."Abhidhamma Pitaka.” Encyclopedia Britannica. vol.1, pp. 30-31.

53

II.4.2. ĀGAMA

Āgama is a collection of discourses of Early Buddhist scriptures.

There are five agamas that together comprise the Sūtra Piṭaka of the

Early Buddhism. Āgamas of various schools are preserved in Chinsese

translations, and portions also survive in Tibetan translation and in

Sanskrit.

In the 4th century CE, Mahāyāna abhidharma work

Abhidharmasamuccaya, to which Asaṅga refers contains the Āgamas as

the Śrāvakapiṭaka, and associates it with the śrāvakas and

pratyekabuddhas. Asaṅga classifies the Mahāyāna Sūtras as belonging

to the Bodhisattvapiṭaka, which is designated as the collection of

teachings by Bodhisattvas.39

It is clear that, among the early schools, at a minimum the

Sarvāstivāda, Kāśyapīya, Mahāsāṃghika, and Dharmaguptaka had

recensions of four of the five Āgamas that differed a little. The Āgamas

have been compared to the Pāli Canon's Nikāyas by contemporary

scholars in an attempt to identify possible changes and root phrasings.

The existence of Āgamas and their similarity to the Sūtta Piṭaka are

sometimes used by scholars to assess to what degree these teachings are

historically authentic representations of the Canon of Early Buddhism.

II.3.2.1. Dīrgha Āgama (Long Discourses)

A complete version of the Dīrgha Āgama of the Dharmaguptaka

(法藏部) school was done by Buddhayaśas (佛陀耶舍) and Zhu Fonian

(竺佛念) in the Late Qin dynasty.

It contains 30 sūtras in contrast to the 34 sūttas of the

Theravadin Dīgha Nikāya. A "very substantial" portion of the

39 Walpola (tr). Asaṅga Abhidharma Samuccaya: The Compendium of Higher Teaching, pp. 199-200.

54

Sarvāstivādin Dīrgha Āgama survives in Sanskrit40 and some portions

survive in Tibetan translations.

II.3.2.2 .Madhyama Āgama (Middle Length Discourses)

A complete translation of the Madhyama Āgama of the

Sarvāstivāda School was done by Saṃghadeva (僧伽提婆) in the

Eastern Jin dynasty. The Madhyama Āgama of the Sarvāstivāda School

contains 222 sūtras. Portions of the Sarvāstivāda Madhyama Āgama

also survive in Tibetan translation.

II.3.2.3. Saṃyukta Āgama (Connected Discourses)

A Chinese translation of the complete Saṃyukta Āgama of the

Sarvāstivāda school was done by Guṇabhadra (求那跋陀羅) in the

Song state. Portions of the Sarvāstivāda Saṃyukta Āgama also survive

in Sanskrit and Tibetan translation.

II.3.2 .4. Ekottara Āgama (Numbered Discourses)

A complete version of the Ekottara Āgama was translated by

Dharmanandi (曇摩難提) of the Fu Qin state (苻秦), and was edited by

Gautama Saṃghadeva.

II.3.2.5. Kṣudraka Āgama (Minor Collection)

Kṣudraka Āgama corresponds to the Khuddaka Nikāya. In

addition, there is a substantial quantity of āgama-style texts outside of

the main collections. These are found in various sources as: (1) Partial

āgama collections and independent sūtras within the Chinese canon. (2)

Small groups of sūtras or independent sūtras within the Tibetan canon.

(3) Sūtras reconstructed from ancient manuscripts in Sanskrit,

Gandhari, or other ancient Indic languages. (4) Passages and quotes

from āgama preserved within Mahāyāna Sūtras, Abhidharma texts, later

40 Olivelle, Patrick, (ed.) Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE, p. 356.

55

commentaries, and so on. (5) Isolated phrases preserved in inscriptions,

like the Asoka pillars.

II.5. MAHĀYĀNA LITERATURE

II.5.1. Understanding of Mahāyāna Buddhism

Mahāyāna (Great Vehicle) is one of the two main branches of

Buddhism. Mahāyāna also refers to the path of seeking complete

enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, also called

Bodhisattvayana.41 Among the earliest and most important references to

the term Mahāyāna are those that appear in the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka

Sūtra (about 1st BC to 1st CE).42 The earliest textual evidence of

Mahāyāna comes from sūtra original around the beginning of the

Common Era. Jan Nattier noted that in some of the earliest Mahāyāna

texts such as the Ugaparipṛccha Sūtra have used term Mahāyāna.43 So,

the term Mahāyāna appeared after the time of the Buddha, dating about

1st BC. Mahāyāna scriptures were already in existence by the 1st century

BC.44

The Mahāyāna arose from the Mahāsaṅgiti School and

Sarvāstivādin School. When the study and practice were sufficiently

ripe, the Sūtras of Mahāyāna began to appear. The first Mahāyāna Sūtra

to appear was the Prajñāpāramitā. Thus, we could say that formation of

Buddhism took plce in three stages: (i) Original Buddhism, (ii) Schools

of Buddhism and (iii) Mahāyāna Buddhism.

During the period of early Mahāyāna Buddhism, four major

types of thought developed:45 (1) Mādhyamaka, which arose after the

41 Warder, A.K., Indian Buddhism, p. 338. 42 W. Rahula, Gems of Buddhist Wisdom, p. 457. 43 Nattier, Jan, A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: p. 193-194. 44 Akira, Hirakawa, A History of Indian Buddhism, p. 8. 45 Harvey, Peter, An Introduction to Buddhism, p. 95.

56

second century C.E, (2) Yogācāra, teaching of ideation-only, (3)

Tathāgatagarbha doctrine in parallel with Yogācāra thought; and (4)

Buddhist logic, which arose after the above three traditions. By the sixth

and seventh centuries, Esoteric Buddhism had arisen and attracted the

attention of some advocate of Mādhyamika and Yogācāra.46 The later

stage forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India are found largely in the

Schools of Esoteric Buddhism. In the East Asian traditions, there has

been a strong tendency in Tibetan Buddhism and the Himalayan

traditions to approach the sūtras indirectly through the medium of

exegetical treatises if at all.47

Although the tradition of ideas which contributed to the

emergence of Mahāyāna Buddhism dates back to the time of the Second

Buddhist Council, one hundred years after the Buddha’s Nirvāṇa, the

principal doctrine of the Mahāyāna are of much later origin.48 Later on,

Buddhism is divided to many schools, after that, that Mahāsaṅgiti

developed to the Mahāyāna Buddhism.

About the 2nd AD, Mahāyāna became clearly defined.

Nāgārjuna developed the Mahāyāna philosophy of Śūnyatā in a small

text called Mādhyamika-karika. In the 4th AD, Asaṅga and Vasubandhu

wrote enormous amount of works on Mahāyāna. Therefore, after 1st

AD, the Mahayanists took a definite stand and then the term of

Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna were introduced49.

Mahāyāna constitutes an inclusive tradition characterized by

plurality and the adoption of new Mahāyāna Sūtra in addition to the

earlier Āgama texts. There is a tendency in Mahāyāna Sūtra to regard

46 Akira, Hirakawa, A History of Indian Buddhism, pp. 8-9. 47 Shrimaladevi Sūtra, Hookham, Shenpen, tr., p. 27. 48 Encyclopadia of Buddhism, vol.7, (ed. in chief) W.G.Weerarate, p. 516. 49 W. Rahula, Gems Of Buddhist Wisdom, p. 457.

57

adherence to these sūtra as generating spiritual benefits greater than

those that arise from being a follower of the non-Mahāyāna approaches

to Dharma. Following the development of Mahāyāna, the term

Ekayāna, Buddhayāna and Bodhisattvayāna also appeared and became

the highlight for Mahāyāna. The Aṣtasāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā Sūtra

says:

“For it is the same as space, and exceedingly great. As in

space, so in this vehicle there is room for immeasurable and

incalculable beings. So is this the great vehicle of the

Bodhisattvas, the great beings. One cannot see its coming, or

going, and its abiding does not exist. Thus one cannot get at

the beginning of this great vehicle, nor at its end, nor at its

middle. But it is self-identical everywhere. Therefore one

speaks of a 'great vehicle.'”50

In the rise and development of Mahāyāna, the contributions of Masters

of Mahāyāna school are very vast. The Masters of Mahāyāna school

are Nāgārjuna (2nd century CE), Āryadēva (3rd century CE), Asaṅga (4th

century CE), Vasubandhu (4th century CE), Dignāna (5th century CE),

Bhāvaviveka (6th century CE), Dharmakīrti (7th century CE), Śāntideva

(8th century CE) and Padmakara and others.

The highest spiritual ideal of Hīnayāna is the Arhant (Worthy

One) who through his own effort and practice attains liberation. But

Mahāyāna generally considers that attainment of the level of an Arhant

is not final. If in the Hīnayāna, the Bodhisattva is only the former birth

of Sakyamuni Buddha, in the Mahāyāna, an infinite number of

Bodhisattvas are found which believe in supernatural Bodhisattvas who

50 Aṣṭ.P tr., p. 91.

58

devote themselves to the perfection (parāmitā), all-knowledge

(sarvajñāna), and the liberation of all sentient beings.

The heart of the Mahāyāna lies in the Trikāya (three bodies of

the Buddha)51 and the Bodhisattva idea. The most important ideal man

is Bodhisattva.52 Traditionally, a Bodhisattva is anyone who, motivated

by great compassion, has generated bodhicitta, which is a spontaneous

wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings.53 The

great insight of Mahāyāna that every one can became a Buddha. We all

have the capacity of becoming a fully enlightened Buddha through the

way of Bodhisattvas.54

What is the difference between Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna is the

question that Dr. W. Rahula had studied as he made an extensive study

of the Buddhist studies for many years and pointed out clearly the

difference between Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna with regard to the

fundamental teaching.

Both accept Sakyamuni Buddha as the Master. The Catvāri

Āryasatyāni (Four Noble Truths), Āryāṣṭāṅgamārga (Noble Eightfold

Path) and Pratītyasamutpāda (Dependent Origination) are exactly the

same in both schools. Both accept Anitya, Duḥkham, Anātman, Śīla,

Sāmadhi and Prajñā without any difference.55 Both have rejected the

idea of a supreme being who created and governed this world.

B. L. Suzuki gave the points of view which are the same in

Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna as the following: (1) The object of Buddhism

51 Hattori, Sho-on, A Raft from the Other Shore : Honen and the Way of Pure Land Buddhism. Jodo

Shu Press. pp. 25–27. The Buddha has three bodies (kāyas): (1) Nirmānakāya (activity body), (2) Saṃbhogakāya (body of mutual enjoyment), (3) Dharmakāya (Truth body).

52 See more: Thich Nhat Hanh, Opening the Heart of Cosmos: Insights on the Lotus Sūtra, p. 9; Coomaraswamy, Ananda, Buddha and the Gospel of Buddhism, p. 225.

53 Geshe Kelsang Gyatso, The Bodhisattva Vow : A Practical Guide to Helping Others, p. 1. 54 Thich Nhat Hanh, Opening the Heart of Cosmos: Insights on the Lotus Sūtra, p. 11. 55 W. Rahula, Gems Of Buddhist Wisdom, p. 457.

59

is to get rid of delusion, obtain enlightenment, and enter the world of the

Infinite and the Absolute. (2) The world has no beginning and no end.

All is explained by causation, but there is no first cause. (3) All things

change, all is impermanent, all is transient. This is true not only of men

but of all life, even that which seems most enduring. (4) There is no

substantial entity known as the ‘Ego’. As all is impermanent and

transient, so there is no self or ego such as is popularly regarded as

persisting behind consciousness. (5) The law of causation is universally

valid in the moral world as well as in the physical world. Every cause

has an effect. (6) Transmigration explains causation, and is due to

karma, and karma is produced by the deeds in the life of birth and death.

Transmigration leads to suffering, as the Four Noble Truths set out. (7)

Delusion is the cause of suffering which is universal. (8) Moral

practices, such as the Eightfold Noble Path and the Parāmitās, are

prescribed in order to remove delusion.56

The main differences between the Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna

are:57 (1) For Buddhahood, Hīnayāna is historical and ethical;

Mahāyāna is meta-physical and religious. (2) For conception of non-

ego, in Hīnayāna it is analytical and scholastic; in Mahāyāna it is

experiential and intuitive. (3) The altruistic point of view of salvation of

the Mahayanists compares with the individualistic view of the

Hinayanists. (4) The lessening of distinction between monk and layman

in the Mahāyāna. (5) The comparative conception of Nirvāṇa. (6) In the

Mahāyāna all may attain to Buddhahood, for all have the Buddha-nature

and the desire for Bodhi. (7) Bodhisattva and Arhat ideals.

56 Suzuki, B. L., Mahayana Buddhism, p. 34. 57 Ibid., p. 33.

60

Mahāyāna developed step by step from 1st century to later times

in ancient India with treasure of Mahāyāna Sūtras.

II.5.2. Mahāyāna Sūtras

Around one hundred Mahāyāna Sūtras survive in Sanskrit

version as well as in Chinese and Tibetan translations.58 These sūtras

are a broad genre of Buddhist scriptures in various traditions of

Mahāyāna Buddhism. Some of the most important Mahāyāna Sūtras are

briefly described.

II.5.2.1. Prajñāpāramitā literature

Issues of the origins of the Prajñāpāramitā and those of the

Mahāyāna are closely connected, since at the present stage of our

knowledge the earliest Mahāyāna Sūtras are probably Prajñāpāramitā

Sūtras. The Prajñā-pāramitā or ‘Perfection of Wisdom’, which

represents the Dharma-Jewel, is not so much a sūtra as a family of

sūtras or even a dynasty. Edward Conze59 has said that the time of the

composition of the Prajñāpāramitā texts can be roughly stretched over

more than a thousand years from 100 BC - 1200 AD and he

distinguished four phases in the development of the Prajñāpāramitā

literature as under. There were a large number of versions of Prajñā

Pāramitā, such as the , Hṛdaya Sūtra, Vajrachedikā-prajñā-pāramitā

Sūtra, Pañcaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, Sārdhadvisāhasrikā

Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra,

Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā

Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra, Śatasāhasrikā

Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra.

58 Skilton, Andrew, A Concise History of Buddhism, p. 101. 59 Loc. Cit.,

61

These sūtras are the most primitive and fundamental of all those

dealing with the idea of Emptiness which developed out of the causation

theory from Primitive Buddhism. These deal with prajñā. Wisdom in

this context means the ability to see reality as it truly is. They do not

contain an elaborate philosophical argument, but simply try to point to

the true nature of reality, especially with paradox. The basic premise is a

radical non-dualism, in which every and any dichotomist way of seeing

things is denied: so phenomena are neither existent, nor non-existent,

but are marked by śūnyatā, emptiness, and an absence of any essential

unchanging nature.

II.5.2.2. Avataṃsaka Sūtra

The Sūtra called Mahāvaipulya Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra is one

of the most influential Mahāyāna Sūtras of East Asian Buddhism. The

title is rendered in English as Flower Garland Sūtra, Flower Adornment

Sūtra, or Flower Ornament Scripture.

The Avataṃsaka Sūtra describes a cosmos of infinite realms

upon realms, mutually containing one another. It is the most important

doctrine which is the interpenetration of all phenomena. The Sūtra

presents the progression of the Buddhist path to full Enlightenment, or

Buddhahood.

This is a large composite text consisting of several parts, most

notably the Daśabhūmika Sūtra and the Gandavyuha Sūtra. The vision

expressed in this work was the foundation for the creation of the Huayan

school of Chinese Buddhism, which was characterized by a philosophy

of interpenetration.

II.5.2.3. Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra

Bodhisattva Vimalakīrti appears in the guise of a layman in order

to teach the Dharma. The sūtra is strong assertion of the values of lay

62

practice. The sūtra mentions the Buddhafield (Buddha-kshetra) as its

major theme, which was highly influential on Pure Land schools. The

sūtra expounds the doctrine of śūnyatā, or emptiness. The sūtra lays

stress upon the idea that is not necessary to be a bhikṣu or a bhikṣuṇī in

order to be a Bodhisattava and live the Bodhisattva life.60

II.4.3.4. Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra

Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra contains teachings from Yogācāra,

Tathāgatagarbha, and Esoteric Buddhism practices leading to their

Verification of the Ultimate Truth. The sūtra expresses the fact that the

worthlessness of the Dharma when unaccompanied by samādhi power,

and the importance of moral precepts as a foundation for the Buddhist

practice. The theme of how one effectively combats delusions that may

arise during meditation is emphasized.

II.5.2.5. Saddharmapuṇḍarīka Sūtra

The Good Dharma Lotus Flower Sūtra, Lotus Sūtra, Sūtra of the

White Lotus or Sūtra on the White Lotus of the Sublime Dharma is

probably written in the period 100 BC - 100 CE. The sūtra is one of the

most popular and influential Mahāyāna Sūtras, and the basis on which

the Tiantai and Nichiren schools of Buddhism were established. The

sūtra proposes that the three yānas61 are not in fact three different paths

leading to three goals, but one path, with one goal. The earlier teachings

are said to be skilful means to help beings of limited capacities.

II.5.2.6. Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra

The Sūtra is one of the main early Mahāyāna Buddhist texts that

teaches the doctrines of Tathāgatagarbha and the One Vehicle

(ekayāna), through the words of the Indian queen Śrīmālā. After its

60 Suzuki, B. T., Mahayana Buddhism, p. 92. 61 Śravakayāna, Pratyekabuddhayāna and Bodhisattvayāna.

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composition, this text became the primary scriptural advocate in India

for the universal potentiality of Buddhahood.62

II.5.2.7. Brahmajāla Sūtra

It is not related to the Brahmajāla Sūtta of the Theravāda

Buddhist Pāli Canon. This sūtra introduces Vairocana Buddha and his

relation to Sakyamuni Buddha and states the 10 major precepts for

Bodhisattvas and the 48 minor precepts one should follow to advance

along the path. II.5.2.8. Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtras

The Pure Land Sūtras are principally the Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra (Smaller Pure Land Sūtra),63 Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra (Greater Pure Land Sūtra),64 and the Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra (Amitāyus Buddha-mindfulness Sūtra).65 These texts describe the origins and

nature of the Western Pure Land in which the Buddha Amitābha resides.

They list the forty-eight vows made by Amitābha as a Bodhisattva by

which he undertook to build a Pure Land where beings are able to

practice the Dharma without difficulty or distraction. The sūtras state

that beings can be reborn there by pure conduct and by practices such as

thinking continuously of Amitābha, praising him, recounting his virtues,

and chanting his name. These Pure Land sūtras and the practices they

recommend became the foundations of Pure Land Buddhism, which

focus on the salvific power of faith in the vows of Amitābha.

II.5.2.9. Amitābha Sūtra The sūtra recounts a teaching primarily between the Buddha and

a Bodhisattva named Mahāmati (Great Wisdom). The sūtra is set in

Laṅkā, the island fortress capital of Rāvaṇa, the king of Rākṣasas.

62 Brown, B. E., The Buddha Nature: A Study of the Tathāgatagarbha and Ālayavijñāna, p. 3. 63 Taishō Volume 12, N.366. 64 Taishō Volume 12, N.360. 65 Taishō Volume 12, N.365.

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The Amitābha Sūtra draws upon the concepts and doctrines of

Yogācāra and Tathāgatagarbha. The most important doctrine issuing

from the Amitābha Sūtra is that of the primacy of consciousness

(vijñāna) and the teaching of consciousness as the only reality. The

sūtra asserts that all the objects of the world, and the names and forms

of experience, are merely manifestations of the mind. The Amitābha

sūtra describes the various tiers of consciousness in the individual,

culminating in the Ālayavijñāna (storehouse consciousness) which is the

base of the individual's deepest awareness and his tie to the cosmic

exsitence.

II.5.2.10. Vajrasekhara Sūtra

The sūtra is an important Buddhist tantra used in Vajrayāna

School. The sūtra starts with Mahavairocana Buddha preaching the

Dharma to the Mahabodhisattvas in the Buddhist heaven of Akanishta.

This sūtra introduces the Diamond Realm Mandala as a focus for

meditative practices, and its use in the abhiseka ritual of initiation. As

the prince has now experienced Enlightenment, he ascends to Mount

Sumeru and constructs the Diamond Realm Mandala and initiates and

converts the Bodhisattvas gathered there, one by one, into esoteric

deities who constitute the Mandala.

II.5.2.11. Three Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma Sūtra

These sūtras primarily teach the doctrine of vijnapti-matra or

'consciousness-only', associated with the Yogācāra School. The

Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra (2nd century CE) is the earliest surviving sūtra

in this class. This sūtra divides the teachings of the Buddha into three

classes, which it calls the "Three Turnings of the Wheel of the Dharma."

To the first turning, it ascribes the Agamas of the Śrāvaka, to the second

turning the lower Mahāyāna Sūtras including the Prajñāpāramitā

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Sūtras, and finally sūtras like itself are deemed to comprise the third

turning.

II.6. Summing Up

The Fourth Buddhist Council held in Sri Lanka is of significance as the

affects of writing down the text of the Buddhist scriptures began in this

council but the first three Buddhist councils have their own significance

of preserving the authentic text of the sermons and teachings of the

Buddha through memorization and the oval transfer from generation to

generation for a period of about five centuries after Buddha’s Nirvāṇa.

The textual authenticity through oral recitation and in the written from is

retained from the very beginning of early Buddhist literature for which

the first four councils contributed so handsomely. The use of language

and the nature of early Buddhist literature are presented in the third and

fourth sub-sections. In the context of the present study the topic is

theorized in the texts of Mahāyāna Buddhism. These are reviewed in a

brief outline of each in the fifth sub-section. Out of more than hundred

prominent Mahāyāna Sūtras, to outline of eleven Mahāyāna Sūtras is

given though in brief but in a manner which suits to the purposes of the

present research study. The first Mahāyāna Sūtra outlined is

Prajñāpāramitā which is of major significance as the entire seventh

chapter of the present study revolves around this Sūtra. The next chapter

deals with the understanding of the key concept of the present research

study - prajñā - after this.