Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The reviews of related literature for better understanding of the study and to

interpret the results have been presented in this chapter. A study of relevant literature

is an essential step to get a full picture of what has been done and said abroad and in

one’s own country with regard to the problem under study. Such a review brings

about a deep and clear perspective of the overall field. The reviews were collected

from the libraries of Annamalai Universtiy, Annamalai Nagar; Alagappa University,

Karaikudi; Lakshmibai National Institute of Physical Education, Gwalior; Y.M.C.A.

College of Physical Education, Chennai; Jawaharlal Insititute of Postgradute Medical

Education and Research (Jipmer), Puducherry; Pondicherry University, Puducherry.

A study of relevant literature on various literature related to this study, aspects

of yogasana, pranayama, and meditation on biochemical, physiological and

psychological have been published. The research scholar has attempted in this

chapter to project the literature related to this study.

PHYSIOLOGICAL

Udupa et al.1 studied the physiological and biochemical changes following

the practice of some yogic exercise. The result shows that the 12 normal subjects

decreased average systolic blood pressure after 3 months of hatha yoga practices but

returned to the pre-experiment value after 6 months. The average change involved

was small. In contrast to the small changes in resting blood pressure observed in

normal hypertension subjects who practiced yoga, there was observation of significant

decrease in resting blood pressure of hypertension who practiced savasana (Corpse

Posture) with predominant of hypertension as an ailment. The serious circulatory

ailments statistically correlated with hypertensive segments of the population. It is an

encouraging result of research in yoga that considerable evidence has been found

suggesting that a program of relaxation or meditation may be helpful in lowering

blood pressure in hypertensive patients. It also helps to maintain blood pressure in

hypertensive patients and in maintaining blood pressure control while decreasing the

level of drug therapy.

36

Vadiya and Pansare2 carried out the present study on the effect of yoga on

pulse and blood pressure among medical students – boys and girls in the age group of

16-18 years. The students were divided into two groups. One group was given yoga

training for a period of 6 weeks while the second group acted as a control. Resting

pulse rate and blood pressure was measured in both groups before starting the course

and at the end of the course. Results were analysed and compared. There was

decrease in pulse rate and blood pressure after the yoga training in both boys and

girls.

Prasad and Sinha3 had taken 44 subjects, 38 males and 6 females in the age of

20-69 years (average year 42 years) original systolic pressure from 140 to 180 mm hg

and diastolic pressure from 140 to mm hg and diastolic pressure from, 90 to 180 mm

hg. They were taught to perform savasana, twice a day for 30 minutes. The pulse

rate, blood pressure and respiration were recorded before and after the practice. After

three months of practice, the patients had a definite feeling of well being as they

observed a marked impotent in headache, narrowness, irritability, factions etcetera,

and also their average mean blood pressure reduced from 130 to 107 mm hg after the

treatment.

Gopal4 and his associates had conducted a study on the effect on yogasana on

muscular tone and cardio respiratory adjustments. They have presented the data

concerning finger blood flow in various practices of hatha yoga. Gopal’s

measurements were of two groups, each with fourteen male subjects; one group had

been trained in asanas and pranayamas for at least six months while the other group

had no yoga training but took long walks and played light games regularly. Wenger’s

data are from yoga students who had practiced yoga regularly for more than two years

in the ashram at Kaivalyadhama, Lonavala, India.

In one part of his studies Gopal reports, finger blood flow, as measures plethys

mographically for both groups during performance of the sequence of seven yoga

practices. For the untrained subjects the finger blood flow was least in

Viparithakarani (inverted action) Sarvangasana (shoulder stand), and Shirshasana

(head stand), and was greatest in Dharmicasana (symbol of yogi) and Savasana

37

(corpse posture). For the trained subjects, finger blood flow as least in the headstand

and greatest in Dharmicasana, although almost as great in Savasana.

Seshien5 conducted a study on the effect of pranayama and transcendental

meditation on the pulse rate and blood pressure of the male students of the Sourastra

College, Madurai. For this purpose 75 college students were randomly assigned to

one of the three groups. The first group performed pranayama, the second group

performed transcendental mediation and the third group performed pranayama and

transcendental mediation. Subjects in each group were trained with respective

programmers for a period of six weeks, five days a week from Monday to Friday and

two sessions of 20 minutes duration both in the morning and in the evening. Prior to

and at the end of the training period all the subjects were tested for pulse rate and

blood pressure. The result showed that the pranayama reduced the blood pressure.

Transcendental mediation has a positive effect on systolic blood pressure only

combined pranayama and transcendental mediation showed very good effect on all

the physiological parameters.

Gopal et al.6 studied the effect of Yogasanas and Pranayamas on blood

pressure, pulse rate and some respiratory function. Two groups of male volunteers,

20-33 years in age and having the same experimental group consisted of 14 subjects

in Yogasanas and Pranayamas for a period of six weeks. The group consisted of

fourteen normal untrained subjects, who carried out non-yogic exercise - that is, long

walk and playing light games. Pre-test and Post-test were conducted to both the

groups before and after training. The results of both groups were compared. The

trained persons had greater vital capacity, more tidal volume and less respiratory rate

than the untrained group. The prescribed standard exercise increased the respiratory

rate in both the groups who instead exhibited a corresponding increase in total

volume.

Makwana et al.7 conducted a study to find out the effect of short term yoga

practice on ventilatory function test. For this purpose they used 35 healthy normal

male subjects, their age ranging from 20 to 15 years. The experimental group of 25

subject underwent 10 weeks of yogic practices, 90 minutes daily in the morning.

Yoga training limited the exercise i.e., Surya Namaskar, Sharir Sanchalama, Eleven

38

Asanas, Pranayama and Prayer. A control group of 15 subjects were not performing

yoga or any other physical exercise. All the subjects were tested for ventilatory

function in the beginning, before starting yogic training and practices and again after a

period of ten weeks of yogic practices.

The teachers found out that 1. For the yoga group, the rate of respiration

decreased significantly (PL .05) more than the control group. 2. Vital capacity has

been found increased significantly in yoga than the control group. 3. Tital volume did

not show and significant change in the yoga and control groups.

Oak and Bhole8 in their experiment on the pulse rate during and after Bhaya

Kumbaka with difference conditions of abdominal wall. The effect of pranayama on

pulse rate, found that very slight decrease in pulse rate, was observed during three

attempts of Bahya Kumbhaka with relaxed and sucked in condition as udiyana while

it was found to increase slightly in the protracted condition of the abdominal wall. It

almost remained unchanged during the first minutes after three cycles of pranayamic

breathing.

Joshi and Pansare9 attempted to find out the effect of 6 weeks Yogic training

on Pulmonary function tests in healthy medical students. Yogic training includes

relaxation, Asanas, Suddhikriyas and Pranayamas. Effects were compared with

control group. There was no significant change in static lung volumes like tidal

volume and vital capacity, but there was significant increase in dynamic lung volumes

like maximum breathing capacity and forced expiratory volume.

Bhargava et al.10 conducted a study on Autonomic responses to breath

holding and its variations on twenty healthy young men, with the practice of

pranayamas. Breath was held at different phases of respiration and parameters

recorded were breath holding time, heart rate systolic and diastolic blood pressure and

galvanic skin resistance (GSR). After taking initial recordings, all subjects practised

Nadi-Shodhana Pranayama for a period of 4 weeks. At the end of 4 weeks, same

parameters were again recorded and the results were compared. Baseline heart rate

and blood pressure (systolic and diastolic) showed a tendency to decrease and both

these autonomic parameters significantly decreased at breaking point after

39

pranayamic breathing. Although the GSR was recorded in all subjects the

observations made were not conclusive. Thus pranayama breathing exercises appear

to alter autonomic responses to breath holding probably by increasing vagal tone and

decreasing sympathetic discharges.

Birkel et al.11 studied The Hatha Yoga: Improved vital capacity of the college

students. Vital capacity of the lungs (functional lung volume) is a critical component

of good health. Vital capacity is an important concern for those with asthma, heart

conditions or lung ailments; those who smoke; and those who have no known lung

problems. Researchers at Ball State University in Muncie, Indiana, studied the effects

of yoga poses and breathing exercises on vital capacity. The investigators measured

the lung volume using the Spiropet spirometer (an instrument designed specifically

for this purpose). Determinants were taken at the beginning and at the end of two 17-

week semesters. No control group was used. A total of 287 college students (89 men

and 198 women) had enrolled in the yoga training program. 18 Subjects were taught

yoga poses, breathing techniques and relaxation in 50-minute class meetings, twice

weekly for 15 weeks. Class adherence was very high (99.96%). The main outcome

measure was vital capacity over time for asthmatics, smokers and subjects with no

known lung disease. The large number of subjects--287--was a valid sample for a

study of this type. The study showed a statistically significant (p<0.001) improvement

in vital capacity across all categories over time. It is not known whether this positive

improvement was the result of yoga poses, breathing techniques, relaxation or other

aspects of exercise in the subjects' life. However, these findings were consistent with

those of other research studies. Increases in lung capacity and function are among

the trademark benefits of yoga exercise as long as it is of sufficient quality and

duration and involves a distinct yogic breathing component. Earlier studies have

demonstrated that when yoga-induced increases in forced expiratory volume in one

second (FEV-1), the factor that is perhaps the most functional index of lung function.

This is an important benefit for those who have diminished lung volume and function

from emphysema or a sedentary lifestyle.

Madan Mohan et al.12 Investigated the effect of inspiratory and expiratory

phases of normal quiet breathing, deep breathing and Savitrierc Pranayam type

breathing on heart rate and mean ventricular QRS axis in young healthy untrained

40

subjects. The study was conducted on 20 normal student volunteers aged between

17-19 years. Physiological tests conducted were on heart rate (HR) and QRS axis.

Pranayama type breathing produced significant cardio-acceleration and increase in

QRS axis during the respiratory phase as compared to euphea on the other hand,

expiratory effort during Pranayama type breathing did not produce any significant

changes in heart rate or QRS axis. The changes in heart rate and QRS axis during the

inspiratory and expiratory phases of Pranayama type breathing were similar to the

changes observed during the corresponding phases of deep breathing.

M.S. Nayer et al.13 Investigated the effects of Yogic exercises on human

physical efficiency. The studies were conducted on 53 cadets of National Defence

Academy. The parameters of assessment, included ventilation, minute volume, rate

of respiration, oxygen respiration, pulse rate and blood pressure, mechanical

efficiency and maximum oxygen uptake, four additional assessments were made

under resting condition, viz. Vital Capacity (VC), Maximum Breathing Capacity

(MBC), Forced Expiratory Volume (FFV 10 Sec) and Breath Holding Time. All the 3

groups showed significant decrease in pulse rate during exercise. The yogic group in

addition recorded a highly significant increase in breath holding time (from 54 to 106

Sec and VC from 1.98 to 2.89 L/m2 body surface area). The remaining two groups

recorded only significant increase in VC, Ventilation, minute volume, rate of

respiration, blood Pressure, Mechanical efficiency maximum oxygen uptake capacity

and MBC remained unaltered in all the 3 groups.

K.N. Udupa et al.14 carried out a comparative study on the effects of some

individuals yogic practices in normal persons. The yogic postures namely

Sarvangasana, Sirashasana and Halasana alongwith their complementary postures

namely Matsyasana, Myurasana, and Paschimottonasana on physical, physiological,

endurance and metabolic chafes. After the practice, of Sarvangasana appears to

endure prominent physiological effects especially in cardio- respiratory system with

less amount of physical changes. The remaining produce one of physical fitness and

lesser amount of physiological changes.

D. Sakthinanavel15 studied the effect of continuous running, yogic pranayama,

and combination of continuous running and yogic pranayama exercise on cardio-

41

respiratory endurance, selected physiological and psychological variables of the male

students of Indira nagar, Puducherry. For this purpose sixty school students were

randomly assigned to four groups. Group I performed continuous running. Group II

performed pranayama, Group III performed, the combined continuous running and

pranayama group, Group IV acted as the control group and was not involved in any

specific training. Subjects in each group was trained with respective programmers for

fourteen weeks, four times a week, each training session lasted for 30 minutes. Prior

to and at the end of the training period, all subjects were tested for cardio-respiratory

endurance, selected physiological and psychological variables. Only combined

continuous running & yogic pranayama group showed significant improvement on

cardio-respiratory endurance & psychological variables & some of the physiological

Variables except cardiac variables like systolic pressure, diastolic pressure, mean

pressure, pulse pressure, & rate pressure product.

Chandrabose16 conducted a study on therapeutic effect of yoga practice on

patients suffering from bronchial asthma. For this investigation he selected 30 male

patients suffering from uncomplicated bronchial asthma and attending the out-patient

department of JIPMER hospital. Group 1 consisting of the experimental subjects

(n=20, age 18-56; height 158-163 cm; weight 40-72Kg) were trained in yoga under

the supervision of an experienced yoga teacher for 60 minutes daily in the forenoon.

After the training period, the subjects practices the yoga exercises daily for 30

minutes early in the morning for duration of 6 weeks. Group 11 subjects (n=10 age;

age: 19-48 years; height 160.5-179 cm; weight: 43-66 Kg) were not given yoga

training and formed the control group. Before and agter yogic training both the

groups were tested on Heart rate, Blood capacity, peak expiratory flow rate, Forced

expiratory Volume in first second, maximum expiratory pressure, Maximum

inspiratory pressure, 40 mm Hg test for Breath-holding. The researcher found that

Forced vital capacity, forced expiratory volume in first second and peak expiratory

flow rate significantly improved in the yoga training group compared with those of

the control group. Systolic pressure, Diastolic pressure, Pulse pressure, Mean

pressure and Rate pressure product had changed in yoga training group but did not

show the significant differences. In the control group the above said variables

remained practically unaltered.

42

K.N. Udupa et al.17 investigated the effect of physiological and biochemical

studies on the effect of yogic and certain other exercises. Ten young healthy

educated male volunteers in the age group of 20 to 23 years were randomly selected

among the university students. The sequence of practicing different asana were as

follows: 1. Sarvangasana – Matsyasana, Halasana – Paschimottasasa. 2. Sirshasana,

Bhujangasana – Salabhasana – Mayurasana.

The parameter studied in physical and physiological examinations were body

weight, chest expansion, respiration rate, pulse rate, blood pressure, breath holding

time, vital capacity and vital index and biochemical examinations were estimations of

cartecholamainies, cholinesterases, monoamine oxidize, plasma cortisol, serum PBI,

serum protein and blood sugar levels. It has been observed that yogic practices induce

more vital effects than physical exercise which mostly cause physical effects on

skeletal muscles. Yoga suryanamaskar appears mainly to influence the skeletal

muscle with relatively lesser influence on vital organs as is evident from increasing

body weight without change in endocrine and vital organ functions. On the other

hand, Yogic practices increased the serum PBI and plasma cortisol indicating

improved thyroid and adrenocortical function. The Sarvangasana group showed

maximum increase in serum PBI which suggests that this particular asana inhabits the

thyroid gland. The Suryanamaskar appears to induce mainly a stressful state as is

evident form the increased level of neurohumors and related enzymes in contrast to

yogic practices which appear to exert neurophysiological stability as is evident form

lowered levels of cholinesterase and catecholamines.

Mahajan et al.18 determined the effect of yogic lifestyle on the lipid status in

angina patients and normal subjects with risk factors of coronary artery disease. The

parameters included the body weight, estimation of serum cholesterol, triglycerides,

HDL, LDL and the cholesterol – HDL ratio. A baseline evaluation was done and then

the angina patients and risk factor subjects were randomly assigned as control (n=41)

and intervention (yoga) group (n=52). Lifestyle advice was given to both the groups.

An integrated course of yoga training was given for four days followed by practice at

home. Serial evaluation of both the groups was done at four, 10 and 14 weeks.

Dyslipidemia was constant feature in all cases. An inconsistent pattern of change was

observed in the control group of angina (n=18) and risk factor subjects (n=23). The

43

subjects practicing yoga showed a regular decrease in all lipid parameters except

HDL. The effect started from four weeks and lasted for 14 weeks. Thus, the effect of

yogic lifestyle on some of the modifiable risk factors could probably explain the

Preventive and therapeutic beneficial effect observed in coronary artery disease.

Harinath et al.19 determined the effect of hatha yoga and omkar meditation

on cardioresporatory performance, psychologic profile, and melatonion secretion.

Thirty healthy men in the age group 25-35 years volunteered for the study. They were

randomly divided into two groups of 15 each. Group 1 subjects served as control and

performed body flexibility exercises for 40 minutes and slow running for 20 munutes

during morning hours and played games for 60 minutes during evening hours daily

for 3 months. Group 2 subjects practiced selected yogic asanas (Postures) for 45

minutes and pranayama for 15 minutes during the morning. Whereas during the

evening hours these subjects performed preparatory yogic postures for 15 minutes,

pranayama for 15 minutes, and meditation for 30 minutes daily, for 3 months.

Orthostatic tolerance, heart rate, Blood pressure, respiratory rate, dynamic lung

function (such as forced vital capacity, forced expiratory volume in 1 second, forced

expiratory volume percentage, peak expiratory flow rate, and maximum voluntary

ventilation), and psychological profile were measured before and after 3 months of

yogic practices. Serial blood samples were drawn at various time intervals to study

the effects of these yogic practices and Omkar meditation on melatonin levels.

Results: Yogic practices for 3 months resulted in an improvement in cardiorespiratory

performance and psychologic profile. The plasma melatonin also showed an increase

after three months of yogic practices. The systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood

pressure, mean arterial pressure, and orthostatic tolerance did not show any significant

correlation with plasma melatonin. However, the maximum night time melatonin

levels in yoga group showed a significant correlation with well-being score.

Conclusion: These observations suggest that yogic practices can be used as

psychophysiologic stimuli to increase endogenous secretion of melatonin, which, in

turn, might be responsible for improved sense of well-being.

Swahney et al.20 conducted a study on Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)

regression through life style changes: Vegetarianism, moderate exercise and stress

management through Rajayoga meditation. One hundred and nineteen patients of

44

coronary artery disease were registered for the study in March 1999. Out of these

119patients, 70 were angiographically documented cases with superior vena cava,

bicuspid valve defect or tricuspid valve defect, and 49 had tread mill test & echo

cardio graphic evidence of coronary artery disease. They were selected based on

well-defined inclusion and exclusion criteria. All had at least >70% stenos is in one

of the major pericardial arteries. None of them were taking any lipid – lowering drug

and had left ventricular ejection fraction of more than 30% without left ventricular

failure. The life style intervention was started with a seven-day stay at Global

Hospital & Research Centre, Mount Abu. Detailed biochemical, cardiac,

physiological, psychological and hormonal investigations were carried out in these

patients before starting the intervention program. The noninvasive cardiac

investigations included ECG, TMT and echocardiography. The physiological

parameters like HR, BP, galvanic skin resistance, EEG and HR variability were

monitored using a computerized polygraphic recording system. The psychological

assessment included structural interview, anger scale, self-rating anxiety, hostility and

depression scale. Anthropometric measurements like hip-to-waist ratio and hip-to-

abdomen ratio were also worked out. After basal investigations, the subjects were

administered an intensive information, education and counseling program about CAD

and were explained how the adaptation to right life style can prevent progression of

the disease. They received a vegetarian diet of 1600-1800 Kcals./day. The patients

were individually asked to exercise (typically brisk walk) according to their baseline

TMT level. Preliminary results from the study have suggested a marked improvement

in the cardic function parameters within seven days of the intervention program,

which showed further improvement when reinforcement was done after six months of

entering the study. The left ventricular ejection fraction and exercise tolerance (TMT)

showed a significant improvement in patients whose adherence to the new life style

was more than 80%. Both systolic as well diastolic blood pressure decreased

significantly due to a consistent decline in autonomic sympathetic control over the

myocardium. Besides causing a 10 to 20% decline in total cholesterol, low-density

lipoprotein (LDL) and triglycerides levels, the high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels

showed a slight but definite increase over the basal values. The fasting insulin,

glycosylated hemoglobin and glucose levels also showed a significant decrease

45

suggesting a better glycemic control. Morning as well as evening cortisol levels also

showed a 15% decline after six months of the life style intervention schedule.

BIOCHEMICAL

B.K. Sahay et al.21 attempted to find out the changes occurring invariance

biochemical parameter in normal healthy volunteers before and after the yogic

practices subjected to training in yogic practices like Pranayama, Vajvasana,

Bhugangasana, Shalabasana, Dhanursana, Makarasana, Halasana, Nankasana,

Ardhmatsyendrasana, Sirshasana and Savasana for a period of 3 months. The

parameters studied included fasting blood sugar serum cholesterol, serum

triglycerides – phosphokinase, serum cholinesterase, blood lactate, blood pymvalte

and urinary creatinine. The subjects were 53 male aged 28, the male body weight

being 58 Kg and 20 females and 25, the mean body weight being 54.5 Kg. There was

significant increase in the levels of creatinine, phospokinase and pyreuvate to locate P

or V ratio in the males as well as females at the end of the period of study. The values

of serum triglycerides were increased in females and those of serum Hunesterase in

males. The results indicated an increased muscular activity in an anaerobic

metabolism, which was evidenced by increased ratio as a result of training.

Bowman et al.22 determined the effects of aerobic exercise training and yoga

on the baroreflex in healthy elderly persons. It is unclear whether the age-associated

reduction in baroreflex sensitivity is modifiable by exercise training. The effects of

aerobic exercise training and yoga, a non-aerobic control intervention, on the

baroreflex of elderly persons were determined. Baroreflex sensitivity was quantified

by the a-index, at high and mid frequency, derived from spectral and cross-spectral

analysis of spontaneous fluctuations in heart rate and blood pressure. Twenty-six

sedentary, healthy, normotensive elderly subjects were studied. Fourteen (4 women)

of the sedentary elderly subjects completed 6 weeks of aerobic training, while the

other 12 subjects completed 6 weeks of yoga. Heart rate decreased following yoga but

not aerobic training. VO2 max increased by 11% following yoga and by 24%

following aerobic training. Following yoga, a high frequency but not mid frequency

increased. Short duration aerobic training does not modify the a-index at a mid

frequency or a high frequency in healthy normotensive elderly subjects.

46

Blumenthal et al.23 studied the cardiovascular and behavioral effects of aerobic

exercise training in healthy older men and women. The cardiovascular and behavioral

adaptations associated with a 4-month program of aerobic exercise training were

examined in 101 older men and women (mean age = 67 years). Subjects were

randomly assigned to an Aerobic Exercise group, Yoga and Flexibility control group,

or a waiting List control group. Prior to and following the 4-month programme, the

subjects underwent comprehensive physiological and psychological evaluations.

Physiological measures included measurement of blood pressure, lipids, bone density,

and cardiorespiratory fitness including direct measurement of peak oxygen

consumption (VO2) and anaerobic threshold. Psychological measures included

measures of mood, psychiatric symptoms, and neuropsychological functioning. This

study demonstrated that 4 months of aerobic exercise training produced an overall

11.6% improvement in peak VO2 and a 13% increase in anaerobic threshold. In

contrast, the Yoga and Waiting List control groups experienced no change in

cardiorespiratory fitness. Other favorable physiological changes observed among

aerobic exercise participants included lower cholesterol levels, diastolic blood

pressure levels, and for subjects at risk for bone fracture, a trend toward an increase in

bone mineral content. Although a few significant psychological changes could be

attributed to aerobic exercise training, participants in the two active treatment groups

derceived themselves as improving on a number of psychological and behavioral

dimensions.

Chinnaswamy24 conducted a study on the effect of asanas and physical

exercise on selected physiological and biochemical variables among school boys. In

this study ninety male students were randomly selected from government higher

secondary school, Thampatti. The initial scores were measured for the selected

physiological and biochemical variables, namely pulse rate, systolic blood pressure,

diastolic blood pressure, haemogobic blood content and blood sugar land. The

treatment was given for a period of six weeks for the experimental groups. The

significance of the difference among the two means of exercise group and asana

group for the pre test and post test mean gains were determined by F ratio through

analysis of variance. Asana and physical exercise had significantly improved

haemoglobin contains – blood sugar, pulse rate and diastolic pressure. There was no

47

difference in systolic pressure in which either physical exercise group or asana group

made any effect.

Udupa et al.25 conducted a study on comparative biochemical studies on

meditation. The neurohumoral, endocrine and metabolic on two groups of volunteers

(10 from India and 10 from Western countries) who underwent a 10-days course of

mediation in a meditation camp. They showed some significant biochemical changes.

The blood neuro-humors and the related enzymes, namely RBC acetylcholine, RBC

cholinesterase, plasma catecholamines and plasma histamines were found to be

increased; while plasma cortisol, urinary corticoids and urinary nitrogen were found

decreased. This indicates that after the course of meditation these subjects were

physically stable and were on under less stressful state while they were mentally more

active and were in a state of increased awareness.

Udupa et al.26 assessed ten young adult volunteers undergoing certain yogic

and ordinary physical exercise for six months. They had been assessed

physiologically as well as bichemically including estimation of catecholamines,

cholinesterases, monoamine oxidase (MAO), diamine oxidase (DAO), plasma

cortisol, serum PBI. Serum proteins and blood sugar levels. It had been observed that

yogic practices induced more vital effects than physical exercise which mostly causes

physical effects on skeletal muscles. In additition, different yogic practices appeared

to cause different types of specific effects.

P.V. Karambelkar et al.27 examined the effect of three weeks yogic training on

the cholesterol levels of the 17 female subjects of the Teacher’s Training certificate in

Yoga, May 1978. The yogic training programme consisted of 25 yogic practices as

recommended by N.F.C syllabus. It was observed that yogic training imported daily

for 1 hour except on Sunday showed significant reduction in the mean cholesterol

level in these subjects. No significant changes were observed in weight and skin fold

during this period.

Santha Joseph et al.28 carried out a study on 10 healthy subjects to evaluate the

effect of yogic training on some autonomic responses and biochemical indices. Yogic

training was administered daily in the morning hours for one hour under the

48

supervision of qualified yoga instructors. Physiological and biochemical responses

were assessed before and after three months of training. As significant decrease in

heart rate, blood pressure and elevation of mean skin temperature and alpha index of

EEG were recorded, followed by reduction in blood glucose and plasma cholesterol

level. Changes in the dopamine-hydroxylase (DBH) activity, monoamine oxidase

(MAO) and adrenal steroids along with the physiological parameters indicated a shift

in the automatic balance towards relative parasympathodomiance.

PSYCHOLOGICAL

Veereshwar29 studied the mental health and adjustment problems of college

going girls, urban and rural. A sample of 406 girls in the age group of 18-20 years

was drawn from the undergraduate students of Meerut University by the sequential

list method. The sample was further divided into NSS and non-NSS groups. The

NSS group had 182 students and the non-NSS group had 224 students. The research

tools used were: 1) A Standardized Adjustment Inventory for College Students

(A.K.Sinha and R.P. Singh, 1974) and 2) a youth Problem Inventory (M.Verma ,

1975). The data were analysed calculating mean, SD, and ‘t’ test. The difference in

the adjustment of urban and rural girls was not significant in the area of health. Both

the groups showed quite satisfactory health adjustment. The non-NSS group showed

better emotional adjustment than the NSS group and the difference was statistically

significant.

Prasanna30 investigated certain mental health variables associated with high

and low achieving adolescents. The sample was made up to 1050 pupils (567 boys

and 483 girls) of IX Std. selected by applying the proportionate stratified sampling

technique. The tools used were: 1) Mental Health Status Scale (M. Abraham, and

K.C.B. Prasanna, 1981), 2) Composite Test of Generalised Achievement (A.S. Nair,

1971, M. Abraham and D. Seethamony), 3) Kerala University Group Test of

Intelligence (N.P.Pillai, A.S. Nair and J. Gourikutty Amma, 1968), 4) The Kerala

Non-verbal Group Test of Intelligence (A.S.Nair, 1971), 5) The Kerala Socio-

economic Scale (A.S. Nair, 1970), and 6) General Data Sheet. The main findings

were: All the mental health variables studied discriminated between high and low

achievers in most of the groups studied. High achievers had higher mean scores than

the low achievers for all the 16 mental health variables studied.

49

Mohebali31 studied the socio-psychological correlates of mental health in India

and Iran. The sample comprised 480 subjects (240 Indians and 240 Iranian). They

belonged to both the sexes and different levels of mental health. The PGI Health

Questionnaire developed by N.N. Wig and S.K. Verma was used to measure mental

health. The Frustration Scale by N.S. Chauhan and Govind Tiwari was used to

measure frustration. He concluded that the maximum resignation frustration was seen

among the Indians, whereas the maximum regression was seen among the Iranians.

The females tended to be aggressive, whereas the males were regressive and

resignative. The expression of frustration in aggression led to a balanced mental

status; whereas regression resulted in neuroticism. Adolescents both from India and

Iran had more aggression-frustration in comparison with their adult counter parts.

The Indian females had predominantly more aggression whereas Iranian females had

regression.

Abraham32 conducted a study to correlate certain psycho - social variables and

mental health status of University entrants of Kerala. The sample for the study

comprised 880 Pre-degree students (454 males and 426 females) from colleges

affiliated to the University of Kerala, selected on the basis of a proportionate stratified

sampling technique. The tools used were: Psychological Needs Inventory (M.

Abraham and P. Koodapuzha, 1979), Kerala Masculinity-Feminity Scale (A.S.Nair,

1978), Student’s Adjustment Inventory (M. Abraham and R. Jacob, 1979), Student’s

Activity Inventory (M.Abraham and R. Jacob, 1979), Family Integration Inventory

(M. Abraham and F. Fernadez, 1978), Mental Health Status Scale (M. Abraham and

B. Prasanna, 1981) and Kerala University Test of Intelligence for University Entrants

(A.S.Nair and Anandavalli Amma, 1972). This study revealed that twenty three of 25

Psycho-social variables, expect need for knowledge and new experience and

involvement in politics, showed significant correlations with mental health status

Sinha and Bhan33 investigated on mental health among the university students.

This study consisted of 259 male and 118 female students of Kurukshetra University

and 293 male engineering students. The students were administrated the Mas-low

Security-Insecurity Inventory. On the basis of their scores, the students were divided

into two groups; those who were below third decile were labeled as insecure and those

50

who were above the seventh decile were taken as secure. After the administration of

the tests the sample subjects were interviewed through a structured interview schedule

regarding the family background, socio-cultural background, inter-personal relations,

mode of expenses, involvement in the problems of sex, interest in academic problems,

aspiration level and vocational preferences and life view. They found that the

engineering boys were significantly superior in mental health to the University boys.

Magotra34 conducted a study on mental health as a correlate of intelligence,

education, academic achievement and socio-economic status. For the collection of

data the tools used were: General Intelligence Test (Joshi), Cultural Level

Questionnaire, Socio-economic Status Questionnaire, Health Condition Questionnaire

and Mental Health Inventory. The main findings of the study were: 1) The Girls

scored higher in the intelligence test and in the Socio-economic status scale then the

boys, 2) The Girls appear to possess better mental health and were capable of facing

the realities around them and were in a position to tide over the mental disequilibrium,

3) The mental health of the boys and the girls appeared to be considerably influenced

by the two factors, namely, intelligence and physical health, 4) The mental life of the

boys were dominated by the feelings of depression and neurotic behaviour.

Gupta35 conducted a study on Personality and mental health concomitance of

religiousness in the Tibetian students in the adolescent age group. The sample

consisted of 313 adolescents (251 boys and 62 girls) studying in high/higher

secondary Tibetian Schools. The tools employed for the collection of data were:

Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire (form – A) by Cattell, The Cornell Medical

and Religiosity Questionnaire, locally constructed by the investigator. The major

findings of the study were: The high religious groups were associated with the

measures of mental health, which were inadequacy, depression, anxiety, sensitiveness,

anger and tension. The males were more religious than females. The females were

more self–opinionated and imaginative than the males.

Dobalion et al.36 investigated to determine whether differences in likelihood of

diagnosis exist between the urban and rural nursing home residents for 8 common

medical conditions: 4 mental health conditions (depression, anxiety, Alzheimr’s, and

non-Alzheimers dementia ) and 4 physical health conditions (cancer, emphysema/

51

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, heart disease, and stroke/transient ischemic

attack). They used multivariate logistic regression to examine data derived from the

1996 Nursing Home Component of the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey, a

multistage stratified probability sample of 815 nursing homes and 5899 residents,

representing 3.1 million individuals in the United States who spent one or more nights

in nursing homes during 1996. Residents in rural homes were less likely to be

diagnosed with depression compared to those in homes in large metropolitan areas,

and residents in homes in small metropolitan areas were less likely to have cancer

than those in large metropolitan areas.

Reijnereld et al.37 conducted a study on mental health through the promotion

of physical exercise and health. The subjects were 126 Turkish immigrants in

Netherlands consisting of middle aged men. Two low sessions per day for eight days

consisting of health education and physical exercises were given. Topics in health

education and focused on means to maintain a good health. It showed an improvement

in mental health (effect size: 0.38 SD 95% confidence intervals 0.03 to 0.73, P-0.03).

It concluded that health education and physical exercise improve mental state of

immigrants significantly.

C. Lee and Russel38 conducted to explore relationship between activity and

mental health cross-sectionallly and longitudinally in a large cohort of middle

Australian women. Women in their 40s participating in the Australian Longitudinal

Study on Women’s Health responded in 1996 (aged 40 – 45) and in 1999 (aged 43 –

48). Cross-sectional data were analyzed for 10,063 women and longitudinal data for

6472. Self-reports were used to categorize women into four categories of physical

activity at each time point as well as to define four physical activity transition

categories across the 3 year period. The outcome variables for the cross-sectional

analyses were the mental health component score (MCS) and Mental health subscales

of the Medical Outcomes Study Short form (SF – 36). The longitudinal analyses

focused on changes in these variables. Confounders included the physical health

component scale (PCS) of the SF – 36, marital status, body mass index (BMI) and life

events. The study revealed that physical activity is associated with emotional well-

being both cross-sectionally and longitudinally.

52

Thilagavathy39 analysed a study on academic achievement in relation to their

cognitive style, locus of control, self-esteem and mental health. The samples were the

Xth standard school boys (urban 279, rural 221) from south Arcot Revenue District.

Coopersmiths self esteem inventory and Trier Personality Inventory was used to

measure self esteem and mental health respectively and marks scored in the Xth board

examination was taken as academic achievement. From the results it was revealed

that urban students were significantly better in academic achievement (t = 11.88) and

self esteem (t = 7.63). However there was no significance on mental health (t = 0.63).

At the same time rural students were having more cognitive style than their counter

parts (t = 12.47).

Raj and Yadava40 conducted a study of mental health of higher secondary

students in relations to socio-economic status of 251 boys and 250 girls, and 13 to 19

from IX to XII of Azamgagash District (India) were measured and was found that

mental health and socio-economic status correlated positively significantly. Girl

students were mentally healthier than boy students on mental health whose socio-

economic status was controlled. Science students were mentally healthier than arts

students. Higher grades were mentally healthier than lower grades.

Vishwanatha Reddy and Nagarathanamma41 investigated certain components

of mental health status among rural and urban students from the point of identifying

students, who had potential for future development of mental health problems. The

sample of study comprised 400 high school going children, out of which 200 were

boys and 200 were girls. Mental health status was measured by using Thorpe and

Clark’s mental health Analysis Questionnaire (school form). The results revealed no

difference between urban and rural students with regard to their mental health status.

Boys and girls in the sample slightly differed from each other with regard to their

mental health status.

Johns and pate42 designed a study to investigate the relationship between

change in physical fitness level and changes in locus of control and self concept.

Participants of adult fitness programme had volunteered to participate in the study.

The subjects were tested for cardio vascular fitness. Locus of control was assessed

with the Rotten Interval - External scale and self-concept was quantified with

53

Tennessee self concept scale. The subjects had participated in the adult fitness

program, exercising three times a week for 12 weeks. Aerobic exercise was prescribed

at 65% to 75% maximal heart rate. The results revealed that (a) percentage of body fat

decreased (b) self concept increased significantly and (c) locus of control did not

change significantly.

Butik and David43 conducted a study to examine the relationship between

physical activity and multidimensional self concept among adolescents with various

levels of psychological and behavioral problems. Adolescents from public schools

(n=114) and psychological treatment centers (n=112 completed that

Multidimimensional Self-concept Scale (MSCS), which measures physical, affective,

social, competence, familial, academic and global domains of self-concept; the Seven-

Day physical Activity Recall (PAR); and inventories assessing perceptions about

physical activity levels and potential benefits. Co relational analysis showed that for

both groups, physical activity participations levels were positively correlated with the

self-concept.

Lion and Yann44 examined to determine the relationships between gender and

sport participation on the physical self-concept of Taiwanese undergraduate students.

The sample for the study consisted of 600 Taiwanese undergraduate students who

attended classes at six Taiwanese public and private universities and colleges, during

the full 2000 semester. Before distributing the instrument to the six selected

institutions, a pilot instrument was examined by 160 Taiwanese undergraduate

students who were selected randomly. Finally, a 27-item survey that was derived from

prior multi-dimension self-perception was developed to examine six specific physical

components. The instrument’s co-efficient alpha was between 0.78 and 0.86 and each

value of factor loading was above 60. A general linear model, with one way and two

way multivariate analysis of Taekwondo training program experienced less state and

trait anxiety, mood disturbance, and significantly improved levels of emotion

regulation.

Aggarwal Reena45 studied the relationship between sex and general self-

concept in grade IX students and concluded that the mean score of girls was greater

than those of boys in the case of identity, self-satisfaction, behavior, physical , moral,

54

ethical, personal, self-criticism, total self-concept and its instability dimension. The

study found the superiority of girls over boys in their role specific self-concept.

Akbar Hussain46 conducted a study so as to ascertain the impact of disability

on the development of self-concept. The study was designed to compare the level of

self-concept among the physically challenged adolescents with the normally

developed peers. Altogether 90 school going adolescents of grade IX and X aged 11-

16 were purposely selected from the three different schools of Delhi out of which 15

were males and 15 females in each category. Mohsin’s self-concept inventory was

administered on each subject. On the whole, the level of self-concept among the

physically challenged adolescents was found significantly lower than their normal

counterparts. Similarly the level of self-concept among the girls was also found

significantly lower than the boys in general, where as category wise significant

difference was found only in the case of blind subjects.

Amaladoss Xavier and Amalraj47 had taken up a study with the aim of

identifying the level of self –concept of postgraduate chemistry teachers and influence

of gender, community and length of experience over their self-concept. The survey

method was used. The stratified random sampling technique was used. The subjects

for investigation were the postgraduate teachers in higher secondary schools in

Kanyakumari revenue district. The self concept scale prepared by Dr. Mukta Rani

Rastogi was used for the investigation. It is a self-rating scale. The level of self-

concept of the teachers is found to be the average. The level of self-concept in terms

of gender and teaching experience is average. The level of self-concept of MBC

community teachers were found to be high and that of BC, OC and SC/ST is found to

be average. Hence it could be inferred that gender, community and teaching

experience do not cause any significant difference in the self-concept of the

postgraduate chemistry teachers.

Chakrabharthi. P.K, Debashri Banerjee48 conducted a study on gender

difference in self-concept among school students in Kolkata. The study was confined

to 567 students comprising of 300 boys and 267 girls of class VII and class VIII of 12

English medium schools of Kolkata. Children’s self-concept scale by Ahluwalia was

used for measuring the self-concept. It was concluded that boys and girls do differ

55

significantly in their total self-concept score. Boys have a higher self-concept than

girls. There is a significant difference in the self-concept of behavior, intellectual and

school status, physical appearance and attributes, anxiety and happiness and

satisfaction amongst boys and girls. Girls showed that they were more happy and

satisfied than boys.

Gandhi and Meenakshisundaram49 their main objective was to study the self-

concept of teacher trainees in relation of some familial and institutional variables.

The total sample consisted of 350 teacher trainees in randomly selected TTE of

Dindigul, Theni and Coimbatore districts in Tamil Nadu. The self-concept

questionnaire by saraswat was used to measure the self-concept of teacher trainees.

The result revealed that the nuclear family teacher trainees are significantly higher

than the joint family teacher trainees in self-concept. Trainees of urban teacher

training institutes are higher in self-concept than trainees of rural teacher training

institutes. The trainees of Aided teacher training institutes are higher in the self-

concept than the Government Institute counter parts in self-cocept. Trainees admitted

under normal norms are higher in self-concept than those admitted under special

quotas. The day scholars are higher than hostellers in self-concept. Trainees in men

institutes are significantly higher than trainees in co-educational institutes in self-

concept.

Hemsley, Rita Elizabeth50 made a longitudinal study on the academic self –

concept in adolescents of ninth and tenth graders. Domain specific self-concept

measures were used. The results showed that the achievement groups did not differ in

the prediction of self-concept. Regardless of the achievement group, the self-concept

caused by the score for the high self-concept subjects was significantly higher than

that of the low self-concept subjects.

Morries and Rose51 examined the effects of practiced schedule of muscle

relaxation on the measure of state of anxiety. A given sequence of muscle relaxation

exercise was carried out each day for a period of 8 weeks by a group of 10 volunteer

male students. Over the same period a matched group followed a daily schedule of 10

minutes rest. During the first and final weeks both groups completed a long version

of Spielberger’s a state and trait questionnaires and measures were taken for

56

respiration (Vol and VE) heart rate and galvanic skin response. Scores of both groups

showed almost identical profile with a significant decrease (P<0.05) in the A state

scores and a reduction although not significant in the physiological measures. The A

state scores taken at the beginning and the end of 8 week practice period showed no

change.

Samprasad et al.52 undertook the study of evaluation of the yoga on anxiety in

youth in relation to anxiety inducing areas of life. A total number of 356 subjects

comprising 243 males and 113 females with an average age of 18-19 years. A

comprehensive training programme in yoga and meditation for two hours everyday

for one month. Sinha’s Anxiety scale was administrated before and post training.

Differences in the pre and post training scores on anxiety were calculated and

analysed for finding out the effectiveness of training programmes. The results

indicated that anxiety got significant, (0.01) reduced impact of anxiety inducing

situation in type got (0.01) reduced.

Berger and Owen53 made an investigation on the influence of exercise made

and practice qualities on the stress reduction benefits of exercise. College students in

swimming, body conditioning, hatha yoga, fencing, exercise and lecture control

classes completed the profile of mood states and the state was unusually positive

initial moods. It was reported that there was tension and confusion after swimming,

only on the first day of testing. Participants in yoga, and aerobic activity that satisfied

three of the four mode requirements were significantly less anxious, tense, depressed,

angry, fatigued and confused after class than before on all three occasions. Results of

this study supported the possibility that exercise mode and practice requirements in

the proposed taxonomy moderate the stress reduction benefits.

Kocher and Pratab54 conducted a study on “Anxiety level and Yogic

practices”. Anxiety scale questionnaire of Cattell and Scheier was administrated to 56

students of summer camp certificate course of one month duration with a view to

judge the effect of yogic training on anxiety level. The results showed that yogic

practices included in the summer camp certificate course helped in reducing the level

of anxiety scores.

57

Crison55 and his associates investigated the preliminary investigation on the

use of yoga therapy for anxiety neurolysis. The effect for Savasana and Pranayama

practices on 18 patients of anxiety neurolysis has been presented in this report.

Psychological, Physiological and bio-chemical data taken before and after 4 weeks, 8

weeks of the yoga training programme indicated increase in erythrocyte

cholinesterage activity and decrease in VMA in 24 hours. Urine sample showed that

yogic practices have produced deep relaxation in the patients thus, helping them to get

better fast.

Kocher56 conducted a study on yoga practices as a variable in neurotism,

anxiety and hostility. 37 subjects (20 in the experimental group and 17 in the control

group) were administered the N.S.Q., A.S.W. and H.D.H.Q. tests. The experimental

group was given yoga training for a period of 9 months. Tests were given twice to

observe the changes as a result of yogic practices. Results on the whole showed that

there was significant reduction in total neurotism, anxiety, and general hostility scores

and the individual can achieve more emotional balance when compared to the control

group.

Tucker57 conducted a study on muscular strength and in relationship with

selected psychological traits. He took males as the subjects for this study. The body

catthekis scale, Eysenek personality inventory and Tennesse self concept scale were

employed to assess personality. Muscular strength was measured by means of free

weights in bench press and squat. Because of the effect of body weight on muscular

strength body weight was controlled statistically more satisfied with their body parts

and processes, less emotionally liable and anxious, more outgoing sociable and

impulsive, more confident and satisfied with themselves then their muscular weaker

counter parts. All of the psychological traits were associated significantly with

performance on the strength measure. The results indicate forty-three percent of the

patients showed good response, while six percent of the patients did not show any

change. He came to the conclusion that Shavasana is very useful for anxiety states. It

is contra-indicated for depressive stated in the beginning of the treatment.

Sabu and Bhole58 made a study to explore the effect of yogic training

programme on psychomotor performance. The study was conducted on male subjects

58

(age twenty five to forty-five years) of teacher training certificate course who had

undergone three weeks training in yoga education. Apart from the training course

high pitched omker recitation was also given for the subjects. As part of the testing

programme, Bhatia intelligence test battery was given to the students. Psychomotor

performance of subjects was assessed by way of ability to make the dots on the chart

paper of Mcdought Schuster apparatus. They found that training programmes

increased psychomotor performance involving speed and accuracy. Shoulder stand

strengthen the heart and allows the blood to flow freely to the organs in the upper part

of the body. They can also help reducing ailments such as asthma or bronchitis. In

addition, these inverted positions also result in increased circulation to the thyroid

gland, stimulating its function in regulating the body’s metabolism and increasing an

over all feeling of vitality.

Joshi59 found that Pranayama is an ideal programme for training of the mind

and promoting restraint of the animal nature. He conducted an experiment with the

criminals of central jail. They were given training in asanas and pranayama for a

period of three months. A remarkable change was observed in the attitude of the

participants, clashes between the convicts were reduced, and pessimism, motional

outbursts and irritability was copiously reduced. The important observation of the jail

authorities was that a feeling of self-confidence, co-operative attitude and poise was

evident in the behaviors of those who had completed the course. Thus, he showed

that pranayama could bring about remarkable changes in one’s personality by

establishing an inner-outer balance.

Gharote60 conducted the physiological study of short term yogic practices on

the adolescent high school boys. The yogic training tends to contribute to calmness of

mind and stability of emotional behaviour. He further found that the effect of training

was retained at least for another period of two months even when the practices were

discontinued. It leads to the assumption that a continued practiced of yogic exercises

may contribute to established pattern of emotional stability.

Pedro61 has conducted a study over eight years on the effect of relaxation

therapy on seventy three patients of anxiety, neurosis and depression. The results

indicate that forty-three percent of the patients showed very good improvement, fifty-

59

two percent of the patients showed good response, while six percent of the patients

did not show any change. He came to the conclusion that Shavasana is very useful for

anxiety states. It is contra-indicated for depressive stated in the beginning of the

treatment.

Eysenck62 has postulated that extroverts are characterized by a predominance

of cortical ‘inhibition’ resulting in diminished activation and a subsequent lowering of

the individual’s sensitivity to sensory stimuli. The difference in activation has also

been shown to be susceptible to time of day effects, where there is often a reversal in

the level of activation, the performance of the extroverts starts improving as the day

continues as indicated by Colquherin and Corcorn. According to Yerke Dodson, it is

possible that the accumulative effects of stimulation during the day will elevate the

general level of arousal in the extrovert and since performance seems to relate to

arousal in a curvilinear fashion. It is likely that a performance increment be found in

the extroverts should show little change or a decrement in performance level as

compared to the morning sessions.

Brady63 studied the relationship of introversion extroversion to physical

persistence. The relationship of introversion, extroversion to the amount of work

decrement was investigated on 72 male freshmen at the university who were selected

on the basis of the Maudsley personality inventory. Introverts and extroverts differed

significantly in work decrement and persistence on some tasks but other findings were

inconsistent with the hypothesized results.

Claridge64 and others, made an attempt to analysis the relationship between

psycho-physiological variables connected to human performance and personality

variables extroversion and neuroticism there was much evidence indicating that

introverts produce superior performance to the extroverts on simple monotonous

recognition tasks, the former possessing lower threshold for psychological activity

than the extroverts, coupled with a tendency to exhibit higher degree of cardiac and

electro dermal activity.

Leithwood65 conducted the study on the personality characterists of three

groups of weight trainers. For the purpose of this study 15 men who were engaged

60

in supplementary training for competitive sport, 15 men who were trained to develop

their physiques and 15 who were trained to improve competitive lifting performance

were given Cattell’s 16 PF Questionnaire (from A). Comparisons between groups by

analysis of variance failed to show any differences in personality characteristics.

Kirkaldy66 conducted the study on the analysis of relationship between psycho

physiological variables connected to human performance and the personality variables

on extroversion and neuroticisms. In this study he concluded that no significant

difference exists along the personality dimension. But when the team sports were

classified into offensive, centre and defensive players, it was found that males in

attacking position were substantially higher in psychoticism (tough minded, dominant

aggressive) and extroversion, compared to mid-field players.

Clanney67 conducted a study on a comparison of personality characteristics,

self-concepts and academic aptitude of selected college men classified according to

performance on test of physical fitness. He divided college men into high fitness and

low fitness groups on the basis of AAHPER Youth Fitness Test Battery. While

comparing their personality characteristics, as measured by Cattell’s 16 P.F>

Questionnaire, self concept and academic attitudes, he concluded that high fitness

group appeared to be more group dependent while low fitness group was more self-

sufficient. Also the subjects in high fitness group appeared to be more trusting and

free of jealousy whereas, the low fitness group appeared to be more suspicious and

self opinionated.

61

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