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Chapter I: Introduction

Action research is research that is customized to understanding a problem and piloting appropriate

solutions to address the problem. The process, for resolving a plethora of groundwater-related

problems, begins with a proper prognosis of resources, situations and society, the pillars for

developing groundwater management solutions. The purpose of an Action research component in

the PGWM programme was to enable the Resource Centers (RCs) - ACT, ACWADAM, PSI and

WASSAN - to develop capabilities in measurement, monitoring and analysis and more significantly,

in carrying the science of hydrogeology into a decision support role. This role, in turn, was envisaged

as a role to enable piloting of, at least some of the PGWM principles on the ground. The PGWM

design itself depended upon the context of groundwater resources that each RC was working on.

Action research was also thought to be important in strengthening the training and advocacy

components of the programme by feeding live examples of analyses and tools that would in turn build

and strengthen capacities at various levels at the same time enabling a more conducive policy

environment to undertake science, knowledge and action pertaining to groundwater resources.

ACWADAM‟s role, particularly in action research, was of particular relevance given that it was

decided in the project design that:

1. ACWADAM would help each RC in identifying sites for action research and would assist them in developing action research design and plan.

2. ACWADAM itself would develop site-specific PGWM protocols and will implement them during action research, in the form of pilots, with 2 more partner organisations – probably in close proximity to Pune.

3. ACWADAM will develop status reports with the help of RCs – for 4-5 locations where PGWM principles would be piloted.

Of these, many of the objectives under points 1 and 2 were achieved. This report is a summary of

status reports prepared by the four partners under point 3, with regard to their specific action

research status.

Groundwater will pose the biggest challenge-arena for the water management sector, the world over.

Evidence is slowly emerging that groundwater resources are supporting 38% of agriculture

worldwide (Siebert et al, 2010). This statistic is so much more relevant to India, because of the highly

decentralized and individualistic pattern of groundwater use that prevails today, a fact that few

surveys can capture. Groundwater is a common pool resource (CPR). Its management, therefore,

involves understanding the resource, its user base and their characteristics. Groundwater

management, as many have begun to realize, involves a correct combination of sound science,

appropriate technology and a strong social commitment in the setting up of processes. At the same

time, a process of social engineering is important in participatory groundwater management. Having

stated this, however, the right formula between these three is the real need to develop sustainable

solutions around groundwater issues – identifying problems and then proceeding to the solutions,

some of which already exist as part of how communities perceive the resource pool on which they

depend.

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Most groundwater management work has piggybacked on programmes like watershed development

or conservation of water supply sources (wells are another common „development‟ instrument used

under various programmes), where the onus is on „treatment‟ of watersheds, rather than any

consideration to aquifers - the units in which groundwater accumulates and moves. It has become a

common observation that issues around groundwater resources, even in excellent watershed

development programmes, emerge in parallel to the programme. As users dig-and-drill on the back

of such programmes, with the notion of unlimited augmentation of underlying aquifers, the very

purpose of public investment lies defeated by rampant „free riding‟ of a „common pool‟ resource,

often by a select few.

The availability of groundwater resources is a function of aquifers, their boundaries and their

characteristics. The limits of maximum aquifer storage can be assumed to be definite. Moreover, the

limit to availability can also be quite dynamic depending upon deficits in recharge or excess of

pumping over recharge. Often, groundwater quality imposes such a limit even when groundwater is

available in aquifer storage. Depleted aquifer storage may be a temporary condition or a derivative of

longer-term increase in abstraction. The demand for water from an aquifer, particularly in regions

such as South Asia is constantly increasing and can be visualized as an increasing „line of demand‟

(Figure 1). Supply is usually in the form of steps, whether in the public domain of developing „public‟

supply for meeting drinking water and/or in the private/public domain to meet larger volumes of

demand from sectors like agriculture and industry, not to mention urban transfers.

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Figure 1: Managing groundwater in an aquifer supplying groundwater to wells is about understanding available storage

(under variable conditions of recharge and pumping), managing supply and regulating demand. The limit of supply in

this case is governed by the rates and amounts of pumping by wells tapping the aquifer (after Kulkarni and Thakkar, 2012)

Therefore, a fresh paradigm of groundwater management should include supply augmentation,

demand management and resource-based interventions (as against the source-based approach

adopted hitherto). In fact, these three aspects are the framework on which PGWM principles have

evolved. Such a paradigm will attempt to bridge certain gaps within groundwater-related

programmes and allied projects such as watershed management and drinking water-sanitation. The

main gaps are:

Knowledge regarding the resource base, i.e. aquifers, is too sketchy; existing information is largely inaccessible.

Capacity to look beyond the conventional - demystifying subjects like geology and hydrogeology - does not figure within any current mainstream agenda, least in our academic curricula.

Field-based work, especially good hydrogeological mapping, on a local scale is nearly absent in formal efforts to map groundwater resources.

The linkages (or the independence) between groundwater problems (over-extraction and groundwater quality) is still a grey area in the overall understanding of groundwater resources in India.

Participatory Groundwater Management has emerged as a process that attempts to plug all these

gaps by decentralising capacities of understanding groundwater resources, keeping the national

typology of groundwater in mind and at the same time bearing in mind certain common principles

given below.

Groundwater is Common Pool Resource (CPR)

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Groundwater problem be clearly defined through an understanding of the resource and its use.

Principles and processes of management should integrate different uses like drinking water, irrigation etc.

Minimum unit of management be the aquifer (at least a micro watershed, to begin with) and maximum unit could be the regional aquifer system.

Long term engagement in the process of management for at least 8 years.

Planning, management and monitoring to be executed by the community with the support from appropriate agencies.

Local knowledge and formal science should be prioritized. No overriding aspects!

PGWM Action Research Sites

Piloting of the PGWM concept, based on the principles laid down earlier in the report, included the

important aspect of some basic hydrogeological research. This research, it was expected, would form

the basis for developing and influencing certain actions that capture at least a few of the seven

principles. The locations for the action research and piloting were so chosen as to represent at least

four of the six settings of India‟s broad groundwater typology (Kulkarni et al, 2009). Although the

approach to the action research would depend on the nature and scale of engaging communities in

the groundwater management effort, some flexibility in the design and approach was necessary,

bearing in mind the uniqueness of each of the four hydrogeological settings. However, this section

has attempted to standardise the presentation of some common data sets and analyses for the four

action research sites. The action research narrative, rather than following a conventional site-wise

approach, is based on the principle of a comparative description of the groundwater setting in the

four sites, beginning with the regional settings, including rainfall profiles before dovetailing into site-

specific data, analysis and decision support to influence social behavior in each of the for locations.

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Chapter 2: Situation – Typology

ACWADAM, ACT, PSI and WASSAN have been working in different hydrogeological settings in

India on the concept and practice of Participatory Groundwater Management Programme (PGWM).

PGWM is a programme supported by Arghyam Trust, Bengaluru. ACWADAM‟s action research

sites are located in the Deccan Volcanic Province, dominated by basaltic lava flows in Maharashtra.

ACT has been working across a diverse setting in Kachchh but has concentrated on the Tertiary and

Jurassic age sedimentary formations – mainly sandstones – in the Kankavati river basin and the

Kamaguna-Vatacchad watershed in Kachchh district of Gujarat. PSI is working in the Himalayan

region in the district of Sirmour in the Proterozoic Formations of the Lesser Himalayan Region in

Himachal Pradesh. WASSAN is working in the areas of the Peninsular Gneissic Complex , mainly at

the interface of the Deccan basalts and migmatitic rocks in Rangareddy district, west of Hyderabad..

Figure 2 shows the location of PGWM pilot areas in India.

Figure 2: Location of PGWM sites in India

SITUATION- Typology

Details of Action research sites

Action Research forms the core of participatory groundwater management and therefore, each of

the four partners selected one or two locations for their Action Research Pilots. A detailed

hydrogeological study was conducted at each of the locations, leading to an appropriate groundwater

management plan in close co-ordination the community. The process of hydrogeological study is

Map not to scale

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site specific and varies with each location. However, there were some common points on which

each of the partners developed their PGWM action research. Groundwater resource management

was the core purpose of this action research along with factors related to socio-economic

conditions, agriculture, and drinking water security. Table 1 gives the details of the location of each

action research site. Figure 3 shows location of the PGWM action research pilot initiatives in India.

Organisation Action research site

Taluka District State

ACWADAM Muthalane Junnar Pune Maharashtra

Randullabad Koregaon Satara Maharashtra

ACT Kankavati sandstone area

Abdasa Kachchh Gujarat

Kamaguna-Vatachchad

Rapar Kachchh Gujarat

PSI Thanakasoga Nahan Sirmour Himachal Pradesh

WASSAN Pargi Pargi Rangareddy Telangana Table 1: Details of location of action research sites

Figure 3: Location of PGWM action research pilots

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Groundwater situation and dependency

These six PGWM pilot locations are very different from one another. There is variability in

geography, geology, hydrogeology, demography, weather conditions and socio-economic conditions.

There are fundamental differences in aquifer settings and characteristics. Sources for groundwater

access are different too. In Randullabad and Muthalane (Maharashtra) the community is dependent

on large diameter dug wells, while in Pargi (Andhra Pradesh), the community is dependent on bore

wells, although there are still some traditional dug wells in the area. In Kachchh district, the

community uses both dug wells as well and bore wells for groundwater access while in Thanakasoga

(Sirmour, Himachal Pradesh), the community is entirely dependent on springs for their domestic

water needs. The context of groundwater use is unique to each location and so are the issues related

to groundwater management. On the basis of CGWB‟s groundwater development stages (2009)

Randullabad and Muthalane fall in the semi-critical zone while the three locations in Kachchh, fall in

the critical zone. The Pargi and Thanakasoga pilot locations fall in the safe zone. 1 Figure 4 shows the

state of groundwater development India in 2009 and the location of PGWM pilot locations.

However, all the action research pilot locations have a high degree of dependence on groundwater

resources, whether in the form of meeting the drinking water and other domestic needs of people or

the agricultural demand for groundwater resources to mainly support irrigation for the rabi (winter)

crop. In most sites, except Muthalane, groundwater resources formed the main (often the only)

source of water supply for meeting both, agricultural and domestic demands.

Safe zone:

1 CGWB has defined four stages of groundwater development on the basis of groundwater use. The safe

zone is where the use is between 0 and 50 %, semi-critical zone is where GW use is between 50 and 75% while critical zone is where GW use is between 75 and 100% of the available GW.

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Figure 4: Location of PGWM pilots with respect to GW development in India

Rainfall pattern

Rainfall patterns indicate the spatial and temporal distribution of rainfall. In India there is a great

diversity in the rainfall pattern which ranges from more than 10000 mm in Meghalaya to less than

100 mm in Rajasthan. Rainfall, in most parts of the country occurs due to the southwest monsoon,

between the months of June and September. There are also some states receiving rains in the post

monsoon season due to the northeast monsoon. The PGWM action research sites are located in

different rainfall regimes. The average annual rainfall for Pune, Satara and Sirmour district is 1000

mm, 1200 mm and 1500 mm respectively while it is 360 mm and 790 mm for Kachchh and

Rangareddy districts respectively. There is also variability in the long term average annual rainfall at

district level and at the PGWM action research sites. The average annual rainfall for Satara district is

1200 mm. However, average annual rainfall for Randullabad is 700 mm which is well below the

district average. In the remaining pilot locations there is a relatively closer match between the district

average rainfall and rainfall at the PGWM pilot locations. Figure 5 shows the generalized rainfall

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pattern for India and the location of PGWM action research sites. (The five PGWM locations based

on classes provided by IMD, on the basis of annual rainfall and number of days of rainfall.)

Figure 5: Location of PGWM action research sites on the isohyet map of India

In the absence of long-term data at the actual site locations, IMD data for the respective districts

was obtained and studied. The 112 year rainfall data is available for Pune, Satara, Kachchh and

Rangareddy district, while 62 year rainfall data is available for Sirmour district. These data were

plotted in the form of „annual totals‟, „ten-year moving averages‟ and „accumulated rainfall anomaly'2.

A few key observations from rainfall analysis are given below:

It is observed that in the last 112 years there is an increase in the rainfall in all the project

districts except Sirmour.

In Sirmour district, there is a decrease in the rainfall more so in the last 10 years.

Pune, Rangareddy and Satara districts also show a decrease in the rainfall during the last

decade.

Bhuj shows a significant increase in the rainfall during the last decade.

Accumulated rainfall anomalies for Pune district show a „clustered‟ pattern – dominantly

negative till 1930, dominantly positive between 1930 and 1980 and then an „alternating‟

pattern of roughly 2 – 4 years.

2 Accumulated rainfall anomaly is calculated as the difference between the annual rainfall and the long-term

average value of annual rainfall.

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Satara district shows a more systematic alternation between positive and negative

accumulated rainfall anomalies over the 112 – year period.

Kachchh shows taller - sharper (shorter) positive anomalies and wider, shallower (longer)

negative anomalies pointing to seasons of positive extreme rainfall events.

Anomalies in Rangareddy district seem to have gained more intensive proportions during

recent periods – after 1990 – as compared to a more regularly alternating, less intensive

pattern prior to that.

The 60-year data for Sirmour district indicates a dominance of „negative‟ accumulated rainfall

anomalies since the late 1960s.

Figure 6 shows the long term rainfall for the five project districts.

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Figure 6: Long term rainfall pattern for the five PGWM action research districts

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Chapter 3: Details of Action Research sites

The demographic and hydrogeological conditions are quite diverse in and around the six action

research sites. Demographically, the Kankavati sandstone area in Kachchh district has the highest

population, given the spread of villages under the sandstone area. This is followed by Pargi block

which includes 10 villages. The remaining four sites have population less than 2500, given the

relatively local nature of groundwater dynamics identified during the preliminary stages of this

programme. Table 2 gives the background information of each of the location.

Pilot site District State Population Area Population density (per ha)

Sources of water supply

Muthalane Pune Maharashtra 900 900 Ha 1 Dug wells and spring

Randullabad Satara Maharashtra 1900 856 Ha 2.2 Dug wells

Kamaghuna-Vatachhad

Kachchh Gujarat 930 7428 Ha 0.13 Dug wells and bore wells

Kankavati Kachchh Gujarat 70326 129372 Ha 0.54 Dug wells and bore wells

Thanakasoga Sirmour Himachal Pradesh

1437 643 Ha 2.23 Spring

Pargi Rangareddy Telangana 8214 9932 Ha 0.83 Bore wells Table 2: Background information of six pilot locations

Topography

Muthalane, Randullabad and Pargi sites are part of Krishna river basin. Muthlane village is located

in the Western Ghats while Randullabad village is located in the upland portion of the Deccan

plateau, east of the Western Ghats.

Both these villages are part of upper

reaches of Krishna river basin. Pargi

cluster falls in the lower reaches of

Krishna river basin. Pargi streams contribute to the flow of Pedda vagu,

the tributary of Kasaraveni rivulet, a

sub Basin of Kagna River, which

again is part of the Krishna river

basin. Abdasa taluka is underlain by

the Kankavati sandstone area. The

name Kankavati sandstone is derived

from the river Kankavati which is the

major river in Abdasa. There are a

number of small rivers and rivulets like Nayro river flowing from west to east. Figure 7 shows

drainage map of Kankavati sandstone area of Abdasa taluka. Similarly, in Kamaghuna-Vatachhad

Figure 7: Drainage map of Abdasa taluka, Kachchh

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area there is no major river system. Thanakasoga Panchayat is part of the upper watersheds that

drain into the Giri river basin, a sub-basin of the Yamuna.

Muthalane and Randullabad villages are located at an elevation between 680 m and 1100 m, while

Pargi is located at an elevation between 540 m and 720 m above mean sea level. The Kankavati

drains part of central Kachchh into the Arabian sea, and traverses a topography that gently undulates

within elevations of 0 m to 100 m above mean sea level. Thanakasoga Panchayat is located on a

transitional zone between Siwalik and lesser Himalaya; hence it represents both these regions of the

Himalayas. A sloping undulating topography and barren hills are the common characteristics of

these villages. Average slopes are in the range of 40% - 50%.

Water use

All the project villages are completely dependent on groundwater for drinking, domestic use and

irrigation. Most of the sites also have seasonal stream flows, but almost the entire water use in all the

villages is based on groundwater. Groundwater in these villages is

tapped by dug wells, bore wells or springs (Table 1). When action

research commenced in Muthalane there were only 19 dug wells

which were used by the community mainly for drinking and

domestic use. These were relatively shallow large-diameter (5 to

10 m diameter) dug wells with an average depth of 8 to 10 m. The

deepest well in Muthalane is the public drinking water well having

depth of 15 m (45 feet). In Randullabad, there are more than 167

large-diameter (5 ot 10 m diameter) dug wells which are used for drinking water supply, domestic

use and for irrigation. The average depth of wells in Randullabad is 10 m. Almost 90% wells in

Randullabad are used for irrigation. The deepest well in Randullabad, like in Muthalane, is the public

drinking water well having depth of 18m (55 feet).

Abdasa block of Kachchh is perhaps the largest user of groundwater

among the six locations. There are 2323 dug wells and 3688 bore

wells in the Kankavati sandstone area. The shallow dug wells are 15

m. deep while bore wells are 120 to 140 m deep. Out of these, 1818

wells are defunct today due to drying up of these wells or due to the

ingress of saline water. Only 22% wells are in use. In case of bore

wells 3218 bore wells are in use and some 13% bore wells are not,

primarily due to salinity ingress. The bore wells are mostly

concentrated in the central part of the block around Kothara village.

All these 80 villages are dependent on groundwater for drinking water supply. There are a couple of

irrigation dams in the block which are mainly used for irrigation. In Kamaghuna village, there are 3

dug wells and 1 bore well and Vatachhad there are 3 dug wells, 2 bore wells and 1 dug-cum-bore-

well. These two villages are dependent on groundwater for drinking water. There are some farmers

directly lifting water from the adjacent dam for irrigation, although the percentage of such farmers is

small. There are 31 surface water structures like check dams and ponds which are used as water

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sources by cattle. Some of these also function as percolation tanks / ponds for groundwater

recharge.

In Pargi cluster, there are 283 bore wells and 148 dug wells

used mainly for drinking water. Out of these wells, 6 bore

wells and 74 dug wells are shared among the community for

meeting drinking water demands. In Pargi, people share their

dug wells but seldom share their bore wells. There are 598

bore wells which are used for irrigation while there are 53 dug

wells and 38 minor irrigation tanks which are also used for

irrigation. In Thanakasoga Panchayat, there are sources like

springs, baoris, nalas and public taps which people use but were not well maintained. In the three

villages of Thanakasoga Panchayat there are 10 baoris (spring-wells) and 2 seasonal springs. Water is

these sources decreases during summer season and the community faces acute water scarcity.

Agriculture pattern

Agriculture in Muthalane village is rain fed. There are only a couple of farmers practicing irrigated

farming. Being a tribal village, farmers in Muthalane are only „second generation farmers‟ following

relatively traditional practices of agriculture with limited inputs in the form of modern practices.

Paddy is the main crop grown during kharif season along with some

pulses. Much of the paddy is grown based on the method of

„transplanted‟ paddy that is practiced on a large scale in the western

ghat highlands in this region. During rabi season, a few farmers

grow gram, pearl millet and sorghum, mainly residual soil moisture

after the monsoon ceases. The overall agriculture yields in

Muthalane during kharif and rabi season were quite low at the

baseline of this project. Randullabad is a village where more than 70% land was under irrigation

when the project began. It is one of the progressive villages in western Maharashtra. In kharif

season, farmers grow potato, peas and beans for which they have assured market linkages. Farmers

in Randullabad grow food grains like sorghum, wheat and pearl millet during the rabi season. Some

farmers also grow vegetables in summer. In Muthalane and Randullabad, many farmers have

invested in horticulture and are getting good returns.

In Abdasa block and Kamaghuna Vatachhad villages of Kachchh

district farmers take both kharif and rabi crops. However, the

percentage of rabi cropping is almost half of the kharif cropping.

cotton, castor, pulses and sunflower are the main kharif crops

while wheat and gram are the main rabi crops. In Pargi cluster,

cotton, maize, paddy, red gram and groundnut are the main

crops. Almost 77% land is rain fed while only 13% land is under

irrigation. Paddy and groundnut are the two main irrigated crops

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which are grown in both kharif and rabi season. In Thanakasoga area of Himachal Pradesh, maize is

the main crop during kharif and wheat is grown in rabi season.

Demography

Each organization has chosen 1-2 villages to carry out action research. These selected locations, in

most of the cases, are inhabited by poor marginalized communities. The demographic data shows

that ST (Scheduled Tribes), SC (Scheduled caste), BC (Backward caste) and Muslim are the

dominant communities in all locations. In Muthalane 100% population belong to ST and SC

communities, in Kamaghuna and Vatachhad 100% population is Muslim, in Thanakasoga and Pargi,

where there are mixed populations, a majority belongs to ST, SC and BC communities. In

Randullabad, however, the majority population belongs to „General‟ community.

Location Number of Families Population Male Female Communities

Muthalane 152 805 427 378 ST, SC

Randullabad 351 2002 1086 916 ST, SC, General

Kamaghuna- Vatachhad

117 914 448 466 Muslim

Thanakasoga 217 1437 747 690 ST, SC, General

Pargi cluster 2159 8214 4569 3645 ST, SC, BC, General

Table 3: Demographic information of six pilot locations

*Pargi is one village of Narayanpur cluster and data given in the table is for the whole cluster

Land use

Land use pattern of an area has a significant bearing on the groundwater condition of that area.

Land use data shows that majority of the agricultural land in the PGWM action research locations is

rain-fed (except for Randullabad). Large amount of the land is fallow in all the locations and forest

common land & pastures also occupy significant part of land in all the locations. In Thanakasoga,

around 50% of the total area is under common land and pastures but in other locations common

lands and pastures account for only 3-5% of the total land-use. In Randullabad 60-70 % of the total

land is under agriculture while in Pargi cluster and Thanakasoga it is as low as 45% and 30%

respectively. Similarly percentage of fallow land is also varying across different locations. All the area

where availability of agricultural land is high their groundwater use at present will be high and there

is a possibility that in future, if farmers make more investments on groundwater structures,

groundwater use will significantly increase. At the same time those locations where percentage of

forest land, fallow land and common land & pastures is high there is a great possibility of doing

groundwater recharge measures.

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Location Cultivated Irrigated Land

Cultivated Rain fed Land

Fallow land Forest Land

common land & pastures

Total Land

Muthalane 3 567 249 21 - 840

Randullabad 48.1 465.023 147.37 170.86 24.99 856.343

Kamaghuna- Vatachhad

7428.59

Thanakasoga 27.7 161.39 64.79 75.02 312.52 641.42

Pargi cluster 2049 8850 10385 1050 666 23000

Table 4: Land use information of six pilot locations

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Methodology

The methodology for implementation of PGWM involves scientific understanding of groundwater

and understanding of social structure of the village. Since, this is a Participatory Groundwater

Management programme, hydrogeology or groundwater science and social sciences must go hand in

hand. Hence, the methodology in the action research process involved the following steps.

PROCESSES

Identification of PGWM sites based on the crisis (resource-based) and need felt (community-

interface)

Collection of base line information (toposheet, cadastral maps, DPR etc.)

Understanding of groundwater problem

Geological mapping & preparation of geological

map

Establishing monitoring network (Weather station, well inventory, water level data, „V‟

notch)

Basic orientation and training of the implementing staff on groundwater

And PGWM

Socio economic survey (related to water and groundwater problems)

Water quality analysis (Twice a year: in pre

monsoon and post monsoon season)

Conducting pumping tests

Analysis of data

OUTCOMES

Aquifer delineation and preparation of aquifer maps

Development of groundwater balance

Development of simple protocols for water conservation and best methods

of groundwater use for each village

Preparation of groundwater management plan (includes formation of groups, Water conservation techniques)

Introducing any relevant methods for groundwater development and

Management (for crop water management, drinking water security)

Advocating the findings of the study in the village and at various other platforms

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Chapter 4: Hydrogeology- a basis for understanding groundwater

Hydrogeology is the science which mainly deals with groundwater. Hydrogeological investigations

are the primary exercise in understanding groundwater-related problems and tailoring responses

through the process of groundwater management (Badarayani et al, 2009) It includes some reference

to the altitude, slope and the morphology of land; however, its main component is the study of

geology and its influence on the accumulation and movement of groundwater as well as the quality

of groundwater. All PGWM partners have conducted a detailed geological study of the area leading

to geological maps, that form the basis for aquifer delineation in the respective areas.

Geology of Muthalane and Randullabad

Muthalane and Randullabad villages are part of Deccan Volcanic Province. Both these villages are

underlain by Deccan basalts formed from the eruption of basalt lava some 65 million years ago.

These basalt lava „flows‟ vary in thickness from a few meters up to 10s or even 100s of meters.

Each lava flow can further be divided into sub-units. In general, the Deccan basalts can be grouped

into two categories, „simple‟ or „compound‟ depending on the viscosity of the primary lava

(Deshmukh, 1988; Kale and Kulkarni, 1992). The simple flows equate to classic flood basalts formed by

quite effusive eruption of very large quantities of low viscosity lava from open fissures. Hence,

simple flows can be assumed to be formed from lava that can travel great distances. The compound

flows are either the product of explosive activity from more viscous lavas or can be formed at the

distal portion of simple flows where there is an increased viscosity from cooling and degassing.

Compound flows are formed when lava can flow only to limited distances when extruded on the

surface of the earth.

Both types of basalt flows tend to weather variably even across small outcrops. The compound flow

basalts result from lavas, which lose much of their volatile gases prior to extrusion and hence are

more viscous. This greater viscosity causes the remaining volatile gases to be trapped within the

rapidly solidifying lava. The lava is characterized by rubbly upper and lower surfaces. Fragmentation

of the upper surface results from the disruption of the viscous crust by the movement of the flow

beneath it. Some compound flows may be devoid of a compact middle layer. Although distinction is

made between the two flow types, gradations between simple and compound flows are not

uncommon since the effects of the loss of volatiles and cooling will increase the viscosity of the lava

and cause a change in physical characteristics (Macdonald et al, 1995). Randullabad village has simple

flows as against compound flows in Muthalane.

In Muthalane, flows can be broadly categorized as Compound flows, Simple flows and 3Giant

Phenocryst Basaltic flows. Muthalane also has a number of fractures and dykes which control the

movement of water. There are three major fracture zones (showing NE-SW trend and NW-SE

trend) and a couple of dykes which criss-cross each other at the center of village. Two types of

3 Giant Phenocryst Basalt (GPB) – It is type of basalt with some crystals of Feldspar which are larger in size than the

smaller microcrystalline groundmass.

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basalts are seen in Randullabad, the vesicular amygdaloidal basalts4 and the compact basalts5. These

two types of basalts occur as alternating layers. Eighteen units of simple lava flows are seen in the

village. Figure 7 shows the geological map of Muthalane (A) and Randullabad (B).

(A)

4 Vesicular amygdaloidal basalt – It is a dark-colored, fine-grained extrusive igneous rock with vesicles. These

vesicles are sometimes filled with amygdales. 5 Compact basalt – It is a dark-colored, fine-grained extrusive igneous rock which is hard dense and compact.

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(B)

Figure 8: Geological map of Randullabad (A) and Muthalane (B) village

Geology of Kamaguna-Vatachhad and Kankavati sandstone area

Kamaguna and Vachhad are located on the Jurassic sandstone while some 80 villages in Abdasa

taluka are underlain by Kanakavati sandstone (Tertiary) which is mainly a sedimantry formation.

The main rocks found here are sandstone, shale and alluvium in layers. Alluvium is the shallow

aquifer in Vatachhad village. Sandstone and shale intercollation is seen in the stream existing in

north direction of vatchhad village. Minor fault is also seen. Sand stone and sand stone+ shale

intercollation are formed nearby. In addition to this, during survey of new construted wells, at

some depth carbonasous shale is also found.

Period Area Type of rocks

Quaternary Kankavati river basin Unconsolidated alluvium

Tertiary Kankavati river basin Miliolietic Limestone, Kankavati sandstone

Cretaceous Deccan basalt

Jurassic Kamaguna - Vatachhad Sandstone, Sandstone + Shale

Kamaguna – Vatcchad villages are underlain by sandstones / calcareous sandstones with

interbedded shales. The sandstones are relatively thin and weathered sporadically. They tend to form

22

local aquifers. At places, such as east of Kamaguna village, the sandstone is overlain by alluvium

while to the west of the village, a sandstone-shale intercalated sequence. Limestone with higher

permeabilities are also observed to the north of Vatachhad village.

Kankavati river basin is underlain mainly be sandstones, with some horizons of clay and occasional

conglomerates. The sandstone is fine grained and indurated at places but the most significant feature

of the sandstone is its extent and depth along with fracture zones and other such linear features that

accord it regional hydraulic continuity.

Tectonic features like fault, fold and dike are also seen very clearly in all the villages, in Kamaguna,

Vatacchad and the villages lying in the Kankavati river basin. As a result of tectonic activities, there

are numerous open fractures found in rocks in all the three areas.

Folding layer near drinking water pond for animals in village Kamaghuna

Fractures in the stream near village Kamaghuna

Figure 9: Geological map of Kachchh area

23

Geology of Thanakasoga, Sirmour, Himachal Pradesh

Thanakasoga Panchayat is located in the Himalayan region, in the transition zone between Siwalik

and Lesser Himalaya. The Siwalik ranges are composed of the youngest sediments (consolidated and

unconsolidated) and are believed to have formed due to a major episode of upheaval some 25

million years ago. These sediments were deposited by the rivers draining the rising Himalayas. The

Siwalik are composed of dark red, brown to grey coloured sandstones and shale. At many places, the

sandstones are soft and massive interspersed with conglomerate and silt layers. Lesser Himalaya is

extensively covered by sedimentary rocks which have been partly metamorphosed. The dominant

lithology in the lesser Himalaya includes quartzite, carbonate rocks and phyllite. The sequence in the

lesser Himalayas generally starts with quartzite at the base overlain by thinly bedded slate, limestone

and dolomite. However, alternation of such a sequence is not uncommon at local scales. The

younger formations are composed of carbonates and phyllite. Thanakasoga Panchayat is located in

the transitional zone between Siwalik and lesser Himalaya and therefore, the geology dominantly

consists of quartzite, phyllite and sandstone. Figure 10 shows the geological map of Thanakasoga

panchayat.

Figure 10: Geological map of Thanakasoga Panchayat

The hydrogeology of the seven sources (baori and springs) is studied in detail as part of the action

research. The springs of this area are either fracture-controlled or depression springs. The fracture

controlled springs are formed due to the presence of 3-4 major fracture zones observed in the area.

Depression springs are formed when the groundwater table intercects the ground surface. Springs &

baori in Thanakasoga, Luhali and Dhyali show alternating layers of quartzite and phyllite. These

fractures are mainly present in the NE- SW direction, although one fracture zone trends EW while a

fault zone trending NE-SW is also observed. Figure 10 depicts the lithology and structures in the

24

rocks of Thankasoga, Dhyali and Luhali in context to various water sources that were part of the

action research in this panchayat.

Figure 11: Cross section of Thanakasoga, Luhali and Dhyali village

Geology of Pargi area

The geology of Pargi area consists of rocks of Peninsular Gneissic Complex along with enclaves of

schist6, basic dykes, a thin cover of Deccan Traps and Laterite. Bands of migmatites7 resulting from

intermixture of the granitoids and the older metamorphics occur at

several places. Granite is widely distributed throughout the area. It

is grey to pink, medium to coarse-grained, porphyritic and non-

porphyritic and massive. It occupies higher topographic levels

forming denudation hills8, dome-shaped mounds (inselbergs) and

boulder outcrops. The dykes are oriented E-W, NE-SW and N-S,

6 Schist: Schist is a medium-grade metamorphic with medium to large, flat, sheet-like grains in a preferred orientation

(nearby grains are roughly parallel). 7 Migmatites: Migmatites are mixture of igneous and metamorphic rocks. It is created when a metamorphic rock such as gneiss partially melts, and then that melt recrystallizes into an igneous rock, creating a mixture of the un-melted metamorphic part with the recrystallized igneous part 8 Denudation: In denudation, the elevation and relief of landforms is reduced by the processes like weathering and

erosion.

25

with widths of 7 to 50m and length up to several kilometers. The basaltic lavas of the Deccan Traps

cover either the Bhima sediments or the granitoids, around Vikarabad, Tandur and Pargi. These

include different flows of basalt and intertrappean9 beds. The thickness of each flow varies from 15

to 20 m. Intertrappean beds, red tuffaceous layers and vesicular tops are some of the characteristic

features in the Deccan Trap area. The Deccan basalts are hard and fine to medium-grained. In situ

weathering of basaltic flows has resulted in the development of laterite. NW-SE and NNE-SSW

trending lineaments and faults are common in the area. A series of WNW-ESE trending faults are

seen in the southeastern part of the area. Figure 11 shows the generalized geology of Pargi area.

Figure 12: Geological map of area around Pargi, district Rangareddy, Andhra Pradesh (After Geological Survey

of India, 1995)

9 Intertrappean bed: The Intertrappean Beds are a Late Cretaceous geologic formation in India

26

Water level

Groundwater level measurement forms the basic building block to understanding groundwater

resources (Brassington, 2007). Sustained measuring and monitoring has been the backbone of the

PGWM action research program. ACWADAM, ACT and WASSAN have collected the well and

bore well water levels while PSI team has collected the spring discharge data over the programme

period of three years.

ACWADAM has monitored the well water levels in

both the villages on a monthly basis. In Muthalane

water level data was collected for 19 wells while in

Randullabad, water level data was collected for 29

wells. This data was used to prepare the

hydrographs for well water levels and also for

preparing groundwater contour maps. Figure 12

shows groundwater contour map for Randullabad.

In Muthalane and Randullabad, there is no

significant difference in the geometry of water table

contours in the pre monsoon and post monsoon

season. However, in both the villages there is rise in water level in the post monsoon season.

Similarly ACT has collected water level data for their three pilot sites. In Kamaghuna - Vatachhad,

ACT has monitored 6 wells and 2 bore wells on monthly basis. ACT has also monitored 38 wells

and 30 bore wells twice a year in the Kankavati basis area - once in pre monsoon season (April-May)

and once in post monsoon season (December-January). There was some pre monsoon water level

data available for Kankavati sandstone area for 2006 as well. ACT has compared the pre monsoon

water level data for 2006 and 2012. There is a significant difference in the geometry of the water

table contours in these two maps.

In 2006, the water levels were pretty shallow (<5 m.) in most part of the coastal alluvial area. In the

western and northern part of Abdasa district, the water levels were at 15 m below the ground level.

The water table was quite deep in the central and eastern part of the taluka at 50 m below ground

level. The water levels were deeper, especially in the area north and north east of Kothara village. In

2012, a significant change in the pre monsoon water levels can be noted. In 6 years, the water levels

have gone down in the southern and eastern part of Kothara village. The water levels which were

quite shallow (<5 m) near the coast in the alluvial area, have gone deeper - from 5 m bgl to almost

50 m bgl in these six years. This decrease can be attributed to the overexploitation of groundwater,

probably as a consequence of new industries that have come up near the coast. The average water

levels in the eastern part of the district are around 30 to 35 m bgl. In the northern part of Abdasa

taluka, there is a rise in the water level, particularly in the Kankavati sandstone aquifer, where the

water levels have come up from 15 m to less than 5 m bgl. This increase in the water level in the

northern part can be attributed to the intensive watershed work undertaken in this part of the taluka.

Figure 13 shows pre monsoon static water level map of two seasons for Abdasa taluka, Kachchh.

Figure 12

27

ACT has done similar observations during the PGWM study where data was collected for 36 dug

wells in pre monsoon and post monsoon season of 2013-14. The groundwater contour map for

Kankavati sandstone area of Abdasa shows that there is an increase in the groundwater table by 5m

in the post monsoon season especially in the northern part of the taluka. Figure 13 shows

groundwater contour map for wells in Kankavati sandstone area, Abdasa in pre monsoon and post

monsoon season of 2013-14.

Figure 13: Groundwater contour map for wells in Kankavati sandstone area in pre monsoon and post monsoon

season 2013-14

Pargi cluster of Telangana

Pargi cluster comes under Narayanpur watershed which includes 11 villages. All these villages are

dependent of groundwater and extracting water from the bore wells. There are more than 1100 bore

wells which irrigate the total area of more than 1200 ha. Naskal and Sultanpoor have more than 240

bore wells each in the village. Out of the 1100 bore wells, only 18 wells are seasonal or defunct. All

the other wells are perennial and are used for agriculture. Farmers have made an individual

investment of around Rs.47000 on each bore well. The average depth of the bore well is around 155

m. A 5 HP motor is installed on each bore well and the bore well is pumped for 6 hours every day.

The average discharge per well is 3 inches (150 lpm). Farmers irrigate their wells through flood

irrigation and only 8% farmers use drip or sprinklers for irrigation. Paddy is the main crop which is

grown in kharif and rabi season. Besides paddy, turmeric, cotton and red gram are grown during

kharif. Groundnut is the main Rabi crop. Farmers in Pargi also grow jowar, maize, pulses, vegetables

and fruits in the form of orchards. In PGWM programme, WASSAN has monitored 19 wells in four

villages. In Rangampally, Roopkhanpet and Chiguralpally five wells were monitored between May

2013 and Jan 2014 while in Sultanpoor four wells were monitored for the same period. The bore

wells no. SUL 1, SUL 3 from Sultanpoor, RKP 1 & RKP 3 from Roopkhanpet, CGP 2 & CGP 4

from Chiguralpally show more or less constant water level while SUL 2, SUL 4 (Sultanpoor) and

CGP3(Chiguralpally) show late recharge. Bore wells in Rangampally show a greater fluctuation

during the rainy season. Figure 14 shows the well hydrograph for selected wells in Pargi cluster.

28

Figure 14: Well hydrograph for selected wells from four villages in Pargi cluster

Spring discharge measured for Thanakasoga Panchayat

In the Himalayan region there are no wells. The entire village is dependent upon spring water and

therefore measurement of spring discharge is very critical. In Thanakasoga Panchayat 12 sources

including 10 baoris – „spring wells‟ and 2 dharas – „springs‟ were monitored. Six of these were in

Thanakasoga and 3 each in Dhyali and Luhali. A significant

increase in the discharge was noticed in the baoris of those areas

where recharge activities were carried out. It is observed that in

baori 5 in Dhyali village (Sitaji-ki-baori), there is a significant

increase in discharge in monsoon season. Out of the three springs

in Dhyali village, this baori is the only perennial source showing a

discharge of 5 lpm even in the lean season. The remaining two

baoris B-6 and B-7 have very low discharge in the summer. In

Thanakasoga, springs are seasonal while the baoris are perennial. The seasonal spring has very good

discharge of 20-45 lpm during monsoon but this spring dries up in the summer. The baoris have less

discharge, but provide water throughout the year. The peak discharge in these baoris is between 15-

18 lpm during monsoon, which falls to as low as 1 lpm during summer. Figure 16 (A and B) shows

the discharge in Dhyali and Thanakasoga village respectively.

29

(A)

(B)

(C)

Figure 15: Spring discharge hydrographs for Dhyali, Thanakasoga and Luhali springs

30

In Luhali village, the baoris have limited discharge but the three baoris are perennial. Baori 4 has the

highest discharge of 11 lpm during rains which goes down to 1 lpm during summer. Baori 1 has very

low discharge of 2-4 lpm during rains which goes down to 1 lpm during summer. Interestingly, this

baori shows little increase in the discharge even after 890 mm of rainfall in 2012. One of the reasons

for this could be that rainfall may be influencing fluctuations in another source in the same system,

leaving this baori to tap into the basis storage of the aquifer system.

31

Chapter 5: Data

Weather data

Rainfall and evaporation are the two important components of a water balance. In the PGWM

action research, all the four partners have collected rainfall data. ACWADAM and WASSAN had

installed automatic weather stations to collect the weather information. ACT and PSI are collecting

rainfall data using rain gauges. ACWADAM has installed automated weather station at both the pilot

sites. In Muthalane and Randullabad, seven parameters were measured on hourly basis. These

parameters are temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, wind direction, solar radiation, rainfall

and evaporation. The evaporation is directly measured from the pan evaporimeter. The potential

evapotranspiration is calculated using the five above mentioned parameters. This data is used for

calculation of potential evapotranspiration, aridity index and also for crop planning. WASSAN has

installed the automated weather station in 2012 where they are collecting data for seven weather

parameters mentioned above. We are providing rainfall data here because that is the most common

data-set for weather parameters across all the action research sites.

Rainfall

The rainfall was measured for both the pilot locations that ACWADAM was working in. In

Muthalane, the recorded rainfall was 974 mm, 1095 mm and 1364 mm for 2011, 2012 and 2013

respectively. This rainfall was close to the average annual rainfall. In Randullabad, there was low

rainfall in 2011 and 2012. The recorded rainfall for Randullabad in the three years between 2011 and

2013 was 518 mm, 481 mm and 948 mm respectively. Figure 16 shows rainfall for Muthalane and

Randullabad between 2011 and 2013. Clearly, Muthalane is a relatively higher rainfall area, while

Randullabad falls in a near rain-shadow zone. Moreover, while in Muthalane, the peak rainfall month

was July across all three years, the distribution of rainfall across months varied in Randullabad.

Figure 16: Rainfall for three years (2011-2013) for Muthalane and Randullabad

A typical feature of the rainfall in Kachchh is the predominance of rain in the month of September,

implying the possibilities of later recharge to many of the aquifer systems in the region. In Kachchh

district of Gujarat, the rainfall was higher in 2011 (the difference being rainfall in the month of

32

August in 2011 as compared to much lesser amounts in August in 2012 and 2013) but in the

subsequent years, there is a significant decrease in the rainfall. In Bhuj and Abdasa taluka, the rainfall

in 2011 was 524mm and 536mm respectively. In Bhuj, there is a decrease in rainfall by about 40% in

the subsequent years. In 2012 and 2013, the rainfall was 210 mm and 320 mm respectively. In

Abdasa taluka there was a decrease in rainfall by almost 60%. In 2012 and 2013, the total rainfall in

Abdasa was 180 mm and 187 mm respectively. Figure 17 shows the rainfall for three years in Bhuj

and Abdasa taluka of Kachchh, Gujarat.

Figure 17: Rainfall for three years (2011-2013) for Abdasa and Bhuj

In Dhyali village of Sirmour district of Himachal Pradesh, PSI has installed one manual rain gauge in

2012. The total rainfall in 2012 was 895 mm in monsoon season (between June and September). The

rainfall was 206 mm (February 2013) in winter. In one hydrological year of 2012-13, the total rainfall

in Dhyali was 1101 mm. In 2013-14, Dhyali received 1269 mm rainfall in monsoon season and 82

mm rainfall in winter season totaling 1351 mm of total rainfall for the year. Figure 18 shows monthly

rainfall for Dhyali.

Figure 18: Rainfall in Dhyali between June 2012 and March 2014

33

The rainfall data for Pargi was not available for the project period and therefore, rainfall data for

Rangareddy district is given for the five years between 2010 and 2012. The rainfall in 2010 was 1110

mm while 2011 and 2012 was 516 mm and 789 mm respectively.

Figure 19: Rainfall data for Rangareddy district between 2010 and 2012

Potential Evapotranspiration

The combination of two separate processes whereby water is lost from the soil surface by

evaporation and from the vegetation by transpiration is referred to as evapotranspiration (ET).

Evaporation and transpiration occur simultaneously and there is no easy way of distinguishing

between the two processes. It is expressed in millimeters (mm) per unit time. The rate expresses the

amount of water lost from a cropped surface in units of water depth. The principal weather

parameters affecting evapotranspiration are solar radiation, air temperature, humidity and wind

speed. The evaporation power of the atmosphere is expressed by reference crop evapotranspiration

(ETo) which represents the evapotranspiration from a standardized vegetated surface. ETo can be

computed from meteorological data. As a result of an Expert Consultation held in May 1990, the

FAO Penman-Monteith method is recommended as the standard method for the definition and

computation of the reference evapotranspiration. (FAO Irrigation and Drainage paper 56, ISSN 0254-

5284). ACWADAM has calculated reference ET for Randullabad between March 2011 and March

2013. The Penman-Monteith equation is used to compute the ETo for Randullabad using weather

data. It is observed that the ETo varies from 1 mm/day to 9 mm/day. The ETo is minimum during

June-July and is maximum in March. Figure 20 shows the daily Reference ETo for Randullabad from

March 2011 to March 2013.

34

Figure 20: Daily Reference ETo and rainfall for Randullabad between March 2011 and March 2013

It was felt important to attempt some estimates of crop evapotranspiration, as part of the action

research. Evapotranspiration is a consequence of „water available‟ on the ground surface and to

crops (mainly in the root zone). Such water is available either as a consequence of rainfall (during the

kharif) and from groundwater pumping (during the rabi and summer seasons) in many of PGWM

project sites. The reference potential evapotranspiration data is used for calculating the crop

evapotranspiration in Randullabad. The crop evapotranspiration differs distinctly from the reference

evapotranspiration (ETo) as the ground cover, canopy properties and aerodynamic resistance of the

crop are different from grass. The effects of characteristics that distinguish field crops from grass are

integrated into the crop coefficient (Kc). In the crop coefficient approach, crop evapotranspiration

is calculated by multiplying ETo by Kc. Single (time averaged) crop coefficients, Kc, and mean

maximum plant heights for non-stressed, well managed crops in sub-humid climates (RHmin= 45%,

u2= 2m/s) were used with the FAO Penman-Monteith ETo values to calculate the Crop ETo.

In Randullabad, potato and beans are the main kharif crops while wheat, sorghum, green pea and

chick pea are the main rabi crops. Crop ETo is calculated using the Kc values (Crop

Evapotranspiration, FAO irrigation and drainage paper 56, pages 110-113) for initial, mid and maturity stage

for each crop. The calculated crop evapotranspiration values using formula, ETc = Kc * ETo is

given below.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

10.000

1-0

3-2

011

01

-04

-20

11

01

-05

-20

11

01

-06

-20

11

01

-07

-20

11

01

-08

-20

11

01

-09

-20

11

01

-10

-20

11

01

-11

-20

11

01

-12

-20

11

01

-01

-20

12

01

-02

-20

12

01

-03

-20

12

01

-04

-20

12

01

-05

-20

12

01

-06

-20

12

01

-07

-20

12

01

-08

-20

12

01

-09

-20

12

01

-10

-20

12

01

-11

-20

12

01

-12

-20

12

01

-01

-20

13

01

-02

-20

13

01

-03

-20

13

ET

o in

mm

. Daily Reference ETo and rainfall for Randullabad between March 2011

and March 2013

Rainfall ETo

35

Crop ETc (initial stage)

ETc(mid stage)

ETc (maturity stage)

Season

Potato 0 mm/day 3.65 mm/day 2.27 mm/day Kharif

Beans 1.42 mm/day 3.75 mm/day 1.27 mm/day Kharif

Sorghum 0.68 mm/day 4.48 mm/day 3.63 mm/day Rabi

Wheat 1.37 mm/day 4.91 mm/day 2.69 mm/day Rabi

Gram 0 mm/day 4.27 mm/day 2.31 mm/day Rabi Table 5: Crop evapotranspiration for different crops in Randullabad.

Water quality

Water quality is an important issue as far as groundwater is concerned. As per the study conducted

by the Department of Drinking Water Supply (DDWS) in 2007, 35% districts of the surveyed 593

districts of the country have problems related to excessive amount of Arsenic, Fluoride, Iron and

Nitrate. At present 90% of the rural water supply is from groundwater and therefore, study of

groundwater quality becomes very critical. In the PGWM action research, adequate importance was

given to the water quality issue. This problem is more critical in Kachchh where salinity is a major

issue. In Himalayan area, biological contamination is a major problem with high amount of fecal

coliform found in the spring water. In the hard rock areas like Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh,

water quality issues are not that serious although there is some deterioration in the quality of

groundwater observed, especially when water from progressively deeper aquifers is used.

The overall groundwater quality in Deccan Basalt is good. Typically, in Muthalane and Randullabad,

the pH of groundwater is between 7 and 9 and TDS is between 300 and 600 ppm. The groundwater

is dominantly of Ca-Mg-HCO3 type. In Muthalane the quality of groundwater is very good and there

is very little temporal variation in the water quality observed throughout the year. In Randullabad,

there is a difference between the water quality of dug wells and hand pumps. The hand pumps show

greater degree of mineralization than the shallow dug wells. Water in the shallow aquifers is more of

Ca-HCO3 type while water in deeper aquifer shows Na-Cl-SO4 type water clearly providing

evidence of greater mineralization. Figure 21 shows the difference in the quality of dug well and hand

pump water.

36

Figure21: Pie chart showing water quality for dug well and hand pump

In Muthalane and Randullabad, the proportion of samples showing biological contamination is low

and the overall groundwater quality was found to be suitable for drinking and domestic use.

Water quality is a major problem in Kachchh, Gujarat. Groundwater salinity ingress is one of the

biggest problems along the coastal areas of Kachchh. It has been observed that the area up to 6 km

from sea coast is severely affected by sea water intrusion. Moderate to strong soil salinity has also

been recorded in the coastal tracts. Sea water intrusion and extent of soil salinity are on the increase

every year. (Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM), GoI, 2002) As per the ICMAM

data, 32215 ha area in Abdasa is affected by saline soils. There are 40 medium and large industries

located in the Gulf of Kachchh, half of which are located in Kachchh district, with the potential to

influence the quality of water.

ACT under PGWM programme has collected data for the total dissolved solids for two seasons;

pre- monsoon (April 2013) and post monsoon (January 2014). In the Kankavati sandstone areas,

there is a vast difference in the TDS values ranging from 120 ppm to 4930 ppm in both the seasons.

ACT has collected data for 53 sources which includes samples from 29 dug wells and 24 bore wells.

It is observed that 8 dug wells and 8 bore wells show increase in the TDS in post monsoon. The

remaining 21 dug wells and 16 bore well samples show dilution and decrease in the TDS in the post

monsoon season. The dilution of salts is more prominent in the bore wells than the dug wells. As

seen in figure 22 there is dilution observed in the dug wells in the post monsoon season. There is an

overall decline in the TDS values from 4200 ppm to 3600 ppm. However there is an increase in the

TDS observed around Rampar Gadh and Mokashivandh villages in the post monsoon season

probably indicating different recharge cycles for different aquifers in the Kankavati sandstone

aquifer system (Figure 22).

Water quality: dug well (W1)

Chlorides Sulphates Fluorides Calcium

Sodium Iron Magnesium Potassium

Nitrates Bicarbonates

Water quality : GP HP1

Chlorides Sulphates Fluorides Calcium

Sodium Iron Magnesium Potassium

Nitrates Bicarbonates

37

Figure 22 Showing the change in the TDS in dug wells in the two seasons for Abdasa

In case of bore wells, there is a dissipation of salts in the post monsoon season. In villages like

Bhanada and Shiru Vandh the TDS is above 4000 ppm in the pre monsoon season. However this

TDS gets reduced to 1500 ppm to 2000 ppm in the post monsoon season. In village Nudhatal near

Kanakpar, there is an increase in the TDS indicating late recharge (Figure 23).

Figure 23 Showing the change in the TDS in bore wells in the two seasons for Abdasa

Pargi cluster

WASSAN has analysed 47 samples from the four project villages in the post monsoon season of

2010. In Chiguralpally and Rangampally 6 and 10 samples were analysed respectively while in

Roopkhanpet and Sultanpoor 11 samples were analysed. The pH of these samples was between 7.2

and 8.2 which are within safe limits. The average TDS of these samples was around 920 ppm which

is more than the prescribed limit of 500 ppm or less. A couple of samples from Roopkhanpet and

Chiguralpally have TDS above 2000 ppm. These samples are for post monsoon season where there

is some freshening after the rainfall. Figure 24shows the hydrograph for TDS is four villages of Pargi

cluster.

38

Figure 24: Total dissolved solids in four villages of Pargi cluster

The concentration of Chlorides was found to be higher than the desired limit of 250 mg/l in

Chiguralpally and Roopkhanpet. In one of the sources in Roopkhanpet, the Fluoride concentration

was also found higher than the desired limit. The overall water quality in Roopkhanpet village is

poor with higher TDS, chlorides and sulphates in groundwater. In the other villages the water

quality is relatively good.

Thanakasoga Panchayat

Pre and post monsoon water quality analysis was conducted for all

the selected baoris in Thanakasoga panchayat. The parameters tested

were pH, electrical conductivity, chloride, nitrate, hardness, iron and

fecal coliform. All the parameters were within the permissible limits,

iron was found to be on a higher side during the post monsoon

period in 3 baoris of Thanakasoga village and fecal coliform bacteria

were detected in all the baoris during the before and after recharge

works but there is a significant decrease in the levels of fecal

coliform.

During rainy season fecal coliform contamination increases in the water sources due to presence of

secondary openings (fractures) in the quartzite and phyllite rocks which carry the bacterial

contaminated water from the surface to groundwater. In order to prevent this PSI team is creating

awareness about this issue through different activities to stop open defecation in the recharge zone

of the water sources. There is also a significant decline in the level of iron after recharge work

because the concentration of iron is reduced after artificial recharge and now the level of iron in all

the sources is within permissible limit.

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500Total Dissolved Solids in four villages of Pargi cluster

Total Dissolved Solids

39

Figure 25 shows the concentration of fecal coliform and iron in five samples of Thanakasoga Panchayat

40

Chapter 6: Aquifers

A groundwater bearing formation sufficiently permeable to transmit and yield water in usable

quantity is called an aquifer (Price, 1996). A geologic formation that forms an aquifer must contain

pores or open spaces though which water may be transmitted towards wells at a useful rate. The

yield of a well depends upon the aquifer properties and availability of water in the aquifer. Wells do

not completely penetrate the aquifer system quite often, which results in limited well-yields.

Moreover, working on the basic concept of participatory groundwater management mandates

perceiving groundwater resources as „common pool‟ resources. Aquifers, therefore, are the obvious

choice of applying the pedagogy of common pool resources to groundwater. Therefore, delineation

of aquifers is important in understanding the extent of the aquifer and its thickness (Kulkarni and

Deolankar, 1990) as well as forming a basis of managing groundwater at the scales of villages or

watersheds. Each of the four partners has delineated the aquifers in their respective action research

site.

In Muthalane, the groundwater system is constituted of two aquifers while in Randullabad there are

three aquifers that make up the groundwater system used by the village. Figure 26 shows the

conceptual model for Muthalane and Randullabad aquifers.

(A)

41

(B) Figure 26: Conceptual model for Muthalane (A) and Randullabad (B) aquifers

Thanakasoga panchayat

In Thanakasoga Panchayat, there are two types of sources: baori and dhara (as explained in the

previous chapter). The baoris are connected to the aquifer system through openings that have low to

medium transmission capacity although the aquifer storage that feeds the baoris is quite variable in

different cases. (from low to medium to high storage) while the springs are connected to aquifers

with openings that have high transmission capacity and variable aquifer storages. The categorization

according to transmission aspects of aquifers in each case are characterized in the table below.

S.

No.

Location Area Source Type Rock type Transmission Storage

1 Thana-1 2.5 ha Baori +

seasonal

spring

Fracture

controlled

depression spring

Highly

weathered

Ferruginous

phyllite and

quartzite

Baori: Medium

Spring: High

Baori:

Medium

Spring:

Low

2 Thana-2 2 ha Baori +

seasonal

spring

1 fracture spring

and 1 depression

spring

weathered

Ferruginous

Phyllite

weathered

Baori: Low

Spring: High

Baori: Low

Spring:

Low

3 Dhyali-

1(Sita)

3 ha Baori Depression

spring

weathered

Phyllite

Medium High

42

4 Dhyali-2

(Kishan)

2 ha Baori Fracture spring Quartzite and

phyllite

Medium Low

5 Luhali 3 ha Baori Fracture spring Quartzite Medium Medium

Table 6: Thana Kasoga Spring characterization

A table is prepared indicating the aquifer characteristics of the six PGWM action research sites.

Parameter ACWADAM ACT PSI WASSAN

Randullabad Muthalane Kamaghuna

Vatachhad

Kankavati

Sandstone

Thanakasoga Pargi

Rainfall (mm) 600-700 1000 180-670 430-780 1200 650-900

Annual

aquifer

storage (mm)

151 14 about 200 mm Could be of

the order of

200 to 300

mm, given

the presence

of multiple

aquifers

Small but

larger than

Muthalane – of

the order of

100 mm

Moderate –

of the order

of 150 to 200

mm

Annual

aquifer

recharge

(mm)

53 6 Significantly high

as a proportion of

rainfall

Could not be

determined due

to the scale of

the aquifer

at least of the

order of 30 to

50 mm

High, but

leakage to

deeper

systems at

least in parts

– could not be

quantified

Annual

aquifer

discharge

(mm)

62 5 Nearly 80 to 100

mm

Could not be

determined due

to the scale of

the aquifer

Natural springs

– 85 mm

High – more

than 1000

mm from at

least two to

three aquifers

Table 7: Aquifer characterization in six PGWM action research location

In Randullabad, the aquifer storage capacity is quite high as compared to Muthalane. However, there

is more discharge from the aquifer than the annual recharge in Randullabad. At present, Randullabad

is still in groundwater safe zone as it is leveraging the aquifer storage against the extra annual

discharge from the aquifer. If the condition prevails for next 10 years, there will be depletion in the

aquifer in Randullabad. As against this, in Muthalane, although the storage capacity of the aquifer is

less, there is a positive balance between the recharge and the discharge of the aquifer which will help

in maintaining the equilibrium.

43

Chapter 7: Groundwater management

Actions on the management front

The purpose of action research in a PGWM is to translate key elements of the research into decision

support for the community, leading to improved actions on groundwater management at the project

sites. Much of the action research at each of the PGWM sites has led to certain activities, which

reflect either in stimulating new or reformed actions on groundwater resource management in the

village or watershed. In some cases, action research has also strengthened village-level decisions that

helped holding key aspects of CPR management as part of the village sustainability plans. The

section below explains how each of the PGWM partners developed the interface of action research

and groundwater management at their respective action research sites.

Advanced Center for Water Resources Development and Management

(ACWADAM)

ACWADAM partnered with BAIF Development Research Foundation in Randullabad and Lupin

Foundation in Muthalane, both of whom were implementing watershed programmes in these two

villages through the Indo-German Watershed Programme (IGWP) funded through National Bank

for Agriculture and Rural Development. ACWADAM‟s action research fed into a number of

activities that these two organisations were implementing in the two villages. These activities are

listed below.

Hydrogeology based advice on watershed planning, especially in locating or rejuvenating

recharge structures and identifying appropriate locations for water harvesting sites; provided

mainly as advice to implementing partners

Sensitization and awareness generation activities in the village, mainly through structured

meetings as well as field-level interface with farmers and the community.

Presentation of findings from action research at regular intervals with the community and

partner organisations with the purpose of instilling the concepts of equitable water

availability, efficient water use and sustainability of aquifers and watersheds

Farmers sensitization through exposure visits to areas where ACWADAM and other

organisations had tackled groundwater issues, particularly to

introduce demand-side measures

Promotion of water efficient methods of cropping like

System of Rice Intensification (SRI) for paddy cultivation

Introduction of the concept of collective farming and

group-wells

Demonstration plots for agriculture promotion (Muthalane)

44

Preparation of drinking water security plans, particularly in terms of improve „risk

management‟ of drinking water sources vis-à-vis competition between irrigation and

domestic needs from key aquifers in the two villages

All these activities led to the preparation of groundwater management protocols for the two villages. The

groundwater management was prepared as a consolidated plan for the village, rather than for

individual (highly localized) aquifers in Muthalane, while in Randullabad, the groundwater

management plan was prepared for each of the three aquifers. Table 8 shows the groundwater

management protocols for Muthalane, the extent to which these protocols were applied and future

recommendations provided to Lupin Foundation in order to sustain engagement on PGWM.

Protocols

Extent of application Future recommendations

Hydrogeology in

Watershed

Programmes

Lupin used ACWADAM‟s suggestions on soil and water conservation interventions, particularly with regard to percolation structures in recharge areas and water harvesting structures (storage) in groundwater discharge areas

Future watershed development activities – structures in recharge and discharge zones to be located appropriately – based on hydrogeological studies in the village.

Since this is a high rainfall area, the structures should be constructed in such a manner that they should be able to last the heavy rainfall spell.

Recharge area

protection

Has been specified but much of these areas are in high-relief zones or under submergence (seasonally) of percolation structures

Some control over open defecation and grazing can be observed but needs improvement

Protection of recharge area

Regulation and control over open defecation, open grazing in recharge area.

Pump capacity

regulation

There is no electricity in the village and therefore farmers are using diesel pumps. There are very few farmers who are actually irrigating their land. The lands in Muthalane are also undulating and one needs higher HP pump to take water from the source to the field. Therefore, pump capacity regulation cannot be generalized in case of Muthalane as is will be governed by many factors.

Regulation of distance

between wells

(Drinking well

protection)

Group-wells were appropriately located at distances greater than 75 m from one another

There should not be any irrigation well within a vicinity of 75 m from the drinking water in the future as well.

Depth Regulation (wrt

drinking well)

The drinking water well was deepened to a reduced level that was deeper than the base of any other well in the village; this ensured improved water availability

This protocol needs to be followed in the future as well.

45

Regulation of

agricultural water

requirement (crop

water requirement)

At present, only 5% farmers actually irrigate their lands during rabi season. The water availability in the village is also limited and therefore, the farmers should use water efficient methods like sprinklers to make the optimum use of the resource.

Groundwater sharing

through community

participation

Strictly followed on the basis of group wells, whereby nearly all the farmers in the village are networked through the well-user groups

This protocol needs to be followed in the future as well.

Drinking water quality

monitoring

Was monitored continuously during the project phase

There should be a continuous monitoring of quality in the future as the entire village is dependent on this source for drinking water.

Officially ratified

regulations to control

groundwater

overexploitation

Not applied Not applicable

Groundwater

Monitoring to

understand the GW

availability

Monitoring protocols were followed until the end of the project in March 2014

Continued monitoring of at least groundwater levels, rainfall and basic water quality parameters.

Community

sensitization and

awareness generation

for groundwater use

Was followed as an on-going process, with a regular frequency

Sharing of information and data with community must be ensured by organization working in the area

Table 8: Groundwater management plan for Muthalane

A similar groundwater management plan was prepared for Randullabad. In Randullabad, 350 ha land

is under agriculture, which is about 41% of the total area of Randullabad village. The percentage of

irrigated land is almost the same as the agricultural land. The sum of kharif, rabi and summer

cropped lands is 710 ha. Of this, only 10-15 Ha land is irrigated in summer. Potato, beans and peas

are the main kharif crops in Randullabad. A variety of crops are grown during the rabi season, with

the main crops being wheat, sorghum (or Jowar), sunflower, gram, peas and beans. Additionally,

farmers grow vegetables like capsicum, onion, tomato, fenugreek and brinjal in the rabi season.

Some farmers continue with this cropping pattern well into the summer season too. Farmers have

begun growing horticulture crops like pomegranate and figs during the last couple of years, as a

consequence of promotion by BAIF Development Research Foundation, ACWADAM‟s inputs on

groundwater availability and development of market linkages for such crops.

ACWADAM conducted a survey of all 167 dug wells in Randullabad and have attempted an aquifer

based analysis of groundwater. There are 55 wells in aquifer I, 69 wells in aquifer II and 41 wells in

aquifer III. Three wells out of 167 wells are not in use. All the remaining wells are used for irrigation.

Farmers in Randullabad pump these wells depending upon the cropping pattern and availability of

water in the wells. In Randullabad, farmers pump their wells for as less as 20 days and as high as 300

46

days. The pumping days also vary in three aquifers. Table 9 show the details of pumping for the

three aquifer systems.

Aquifer No. of wells Pumping days

<50 days 50 to 100 days >100 days

Aquifer I 55 51 % farmers 40% farmers 9% farmers

Aquifer II 69 28% farmers 49% farmers 23% farmers

Aquifer III 41 35% farmers 32% farmers 32% farmers Table 9: Details of pumping for three aquifer systems in Randullabad

Farmers in aquifer I, are not able to take the summer crops due to limited water availability. In

aquifer II, farmers pump their wells to provide irrigation during kharif and rabi season. There are

some farmers having horticulture plantation. These farmers pump their wells to water these plants.

There are some farmers who grow vegetables on mulching paper and for these vegetables they

pump their wells in summer. In aquifer III, the distribution of farmers is evenly distributed. In

aquifer III, farmers grow vegetables in the summer and there are farmers having horticulture plants.

In the drought of 2012-13, 10 ha land was under summer irrigation in this aquifer. Figure 27shows

distribution of pumping days in the three aquifers of Randullabad.

Figure 27: Distribution of pumping days in Randullabad in three aquifers.

One of the major developments in Randullabad has been the introduction of technologies like drip

and sprinkler irrigation systems for efficient application of water

to crops. This has been a consequence of BAIF Developmet

Research Foundation‟s facilitation as well as the understanding

of groundwater use developed through ACWADAM‟s action

research. At present 43% farmers use drip/sprinklers for

irrigation as against 57% farmers using flood irrigation method.

The aquifer wise analysis shows that in aquifer I and II, 33%

farmers use this efficient water application techniques while in

aquifer III 44% farmers use drip/sprinkler.

Randullabad has a tradition of sharing wells. Sixty one percent wells in Randullabad are shared by

farmers. There are 51 individual wells and 16% of these individual wells are pumped for more than

100 days in a year. Most of these wells have limited use in rabi and kharif season. In aquifer I and II,

55% and 59% wells are shared respectively while in aquifer III, 65% wells are shared. In aquifer III

the use of groundwater is done equitably and efficiently.

47

The action research by ACWADAM, particularly the aquifer-based information, helped strengthen

the concept of „well sharing‟, including promotion of water sharing to ensure „protective irrigation‟

to cover as many farmers as possible.

Figure 28: Groundwater sharing in the three aquifers

ACWADAM has also measured the discharge from each aquifer in 2012-13. This discharge is

measured using the specific yield method. In this method, aquifer area, specific yield of the aquifer

and the water level fluctuations are considered in estimating total discharge. Estimates of discharge

by the specific yield method were then cross checked by measuring the pumping hours and pumping

rates from each well. In 2012-13, the discharge from aquifer I was 54880 m3. The total discharge

from aquifer II and III was 538680 m3 and 40000 m3 respectively. ACWADAM has tried to calculate

the amount of water applied per ha land. In aquifer I, 548m3/ha (i.e. 54.8 mm / year) water was

applied while in aquifer II 1560 m3/ha (i.e. 156 mm / year) water was applied. In aquifer III, 156

m3/ha (i.e. 15.6 mm / year) was applied Table 1 shows the aquifer-wise discharge in Randullabad.

No. of wells

Aquifer storage ( m3)

Area under agriculture (Ha)

Discharge from aquifer (m3)

Water applied per Ha (m3)/ha

Aquifer I 55 67200 100 54880 548

Aquifer II 69 1179200 345 538680 1560

Aquifer III 43 50000 256 40000 156 Table 10 shows the aquifer wise discharge and per ha water use in Randullabad.

The water application per ha in three aquifers shows that in aquifer III, groundwater is used most

efficiently. In this aquifer maximum yield is obtained using minimum water. Farmers in this part of

the village are sharing groundwater, using efficient water application mechanisms and advance

farming techniques like the use of “mulch”. This is the aquifer where the drinking water wells of

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

>2 farmers >3 farmers >4 farmers >5 farmers

Groundwater sharing in three aquifers

Aquifer III

Aquifer II

Aquifer I

48

Randullabad are located. Therefore, sustainable use of groundwater in this aquifer is critical as

it directly affects the drinking water security of the village.

The recharge measurement in 2012-13 shows that there is a total recharge of 712564 m3 and a total

discharge of 633560 m3 in the three aquifers. Table 11 shows the details of recharge and discharge in

the three aquifers.

Aquifer Recharge Discharge Use of water

Aquifer I 51520 m3 54880 m3 106 %

Aquifer II 611040 m3 538680 m3 80%

Aquifer III 50000 m3 40000 m3 80%

Total (for three aquifers)

712564 m3 633560 m3 89%

Table 11 shows the details of recharge and discharge in the three aquifers

If in these systems, recharge is compared with the discharge from the aquifer, it appears that in

aquifer II and III the use of water is 80% as against 106% use in aquifer I and therefore, one may

conclude that the aquifer I is on the verge of overexploitation. At present it is in the critical stage but

poor management of groundwater may lead to overexploitation of the aquifer. The three aquifers in

Randullabad are closely linked to each other and therefore, mismanagement in one system may lead

to desolation in the other two systems. To overcome this situation, ACWADAM prepared a set of

protocols for the three systems. Table 11 shows the groundwater use protocols for thee aquifers in

Randullabad.

Protocols

Aquifer 1 Aquifer 2 Aquifer 3

Hydrogeology in Watershed Programmes

This protocol is necessary for this aquifer as large part of recharge area falls on this aquifer and exposed on the surface.

This protocol is necessary for this aquifer as some part of recharge area falls on this aquifer and exposed on the surface.

This protocol is not necessary for this aquifer as no part of recharge falls in this aquifer.

Recharge area protection (Forest cover & community lands)

This protocol is necessary for this aquifer as large part of recharge area falls on this aquifer and if not protected it can put negative effect on availability and quality of groundwater in the village.

This protocol is necessary for this aquifer as some part of recharge area falls on this aquifer and if not protected it can put negative effect on availability and quality of groundwater in the village.

This protocol is not necessary for this aquifer as no part of recharge falls in this aquifer.

Pump capacity regulation

This protocol is very necessary for this aquifer as the high pumping rates can lead to overexploitation.

This protocol is very necessary for this aquifer as the high pumping rates can lead to overexploitation.

This protocol is very necessary for this aquifer as the high pumping rates can lead to overexploitation.

Regulation of distance between wells (Drinking

This protocol is not necessary in this aquifer as there is no drinking water

This protocol is not necessary in this aquifer as there is no drinking water

This protocol is very necessary for this aquifer as both the

49

well protection) well in this aquifer.

well in this aquifer.

drinking water wells are in this aquifer and need to be protected against any interference because of pumping in nearby irrigation wells.

Depth Regulation (wrt drinking well)

This protocol is not necessary in this aquifer as there is no drinking water well in this aquifer.

This protocol is very necessary for this aquifer as both the drinking water wells are tapping this aquifer and need to be protected against any interference due to pumping in nearby irrigation wells.

This protocol is very necessary for this aquifer as both the drinking water wells are tapping this aquifer and need to be protected against any interference due to pumping in nearby irrigation wells.

Regulation of agricultural water requirement (crop water requirement)

This protocol is necessary for this aquifer as currently annual pumping from this aquifer is almost equal to annual recharge. It is necessary to bring down the water use for long term sustainability of the aquifer.

This protocol is very necessary for this aquifer as currently annual pumping from this aquifer is exceeding the annual recharge and utilizing the dead stock of aquifer. It is necessary to bring down the water use for long term sustainability of the aquifer.

This protocol is necessary for this aquifer as currently annual pumping from this aquifer is almost equal to annual recharge. It is necessary to bring down the water use for long term sustainability of the aquifer.

Groundwater sharing through community participation

This protocol is very necessary for groundwater sustainability and its equitable access to small farmers.

This protocol is very necessary for groundwater sustainability and its equitable access to small farmers.

This protocol is very necessary for groundwater sustainability and its equitable access to small farmers.

Drinking water quality monitoring

This protocol is not necessary in this aquifer as there is no drinking water well in this aquifer.

This protocol is very necessary for this aquifer as drinking water sources are tapping this aquifer.

This protocol is very necessary for this aquifer as drinking water sources are tapping this aquifer.

Groundwater Monitoring to understand the GW availability

This protocol is necessary for the groundwater understanding and annual crop planning.

This protocol is necessary for the groundwater understanding and annual crop planning.

This protocol is necessary for the groundwater understanding and annual crop planning.

Scale of acceptance of interventions by community

Substantial Satisfactory Low

Table 11: Protocols for three aquifers in Randullabad

50

Arid communities and technologies (ACT)

ACT implemented the PGWM programme at two locations. In Kamaghuna-Vatachhad, this

programme was implemented through Kachchh Nave Nirman Bahaman and Kodki Setu and in

Kankavati sandstone area with PARAB. Following activities were undertaken in both these locations

PGWM Pilot site

Activities Outcome

Kamaghuna - Vatachhad

Social processes :-

Preliminary meeting with villagers and feasibility study

Formulation of Village Committee for PGWM study and planning in Gramsabha

Regular committee meetings Information collection and study of area:

Base line data collection o Secondary data o Village maps o Well inventory o Surface water inventory o Monthly monitoring and

water sample collection and analysis

Establishment of monitoring network

Coordination: Regular meeting and field visit with Kodki Setu team member

Planning:- Planning for registration of

drinking water sources of village in

Panchayat record

o Source Inventory and source wise detailed documentation has prepared for Panchayat Asset registration

o Asset registration process in Gramsabha

o Planning of recharge structure –Prepared estimate of drinking water well repairing and renovation and prepare estimate of two check dams

R and D

Mapping R & D Activities o Base Map and Surface

Geological map have prepared

Social processes :-

A committee is form for PGWM in Gramsabha

Active Participation of committee in participatory R and D activity

Sharing of Information about ground water among community through committee Information collection and study of area:

Understanding of Area with respect to socio-economic, technical aspect like geo hydrological aspect and water demand –supply scenario and with respect to specific drinking water source protection aspect Coordination:

Regular coordination and field visit provide hand holding support to partner organization in all processes of PGWM Planning :-

A file for water resource asset registration is prepared

Resolution has passed for village water asset in Gramsabha

A proposal for drinking water well repair and renovation is approved by KNNA under village governance fund.

Two check dam estimates (recharge structures) for irrigation and to support drinking water well recharge for Vatachhad village has been prepared and one check dam for irrigation purpose has been constructed with the help of government scheme.

R and D R and D will help in further PGWM processes like ground water movement,

51

o Water Resource map have prepared

o Map verification with community

Geophysical survey around drinking water source for aquifer mapping for the purpose of drinking water source protection

Pump test has done on Vatachhad drinking water well to test yield of well for demand of village population.

aquifer mapping yield of drinking water well etc.

Kankavati Sandstone

Social processes:-

Contact with villages key leaders to form a clusters of villages and to share concept of PGWM

Awareness seminar in collaboration with PARAB ,Produce Company and KFFDT has organize for Key farmers and leaders of 82 villages of Abdasa taluka covered in Kankavati Sandstone Aquifer

Follow up meeting –workshop after seminar has organize

Information collection and study of area:-

Secondary Data Collection

Base map preparation and theme maps preparation

Water Sampling and groundwater quality assessment

Groundwater Exploitation zoning mapping

o Village wise data survey of groundwater resource has been completed

Well Monitoring and water sample collection and analysis

Producer company and KFFDT is ready aquifer along with PARAB and ACT to participate actively in PGWM on Kankavati Sand stone

They have finalized three clusters (total 26 villages) as first intervention.

They have taken decision to prepare and execute ground water protection guideline for drinking water in 13 villages of three clusters.

Village-wise data collection and mapping for drinking water source protection guideline are ongoing.

Discussion of DWSP in three villages Gramsabha and Gramsabha are ready to execute DWSP guideline and form study committee.

Table 12: Details of activities and outcomes in ACT’s two pilot locations

52

People’s Science Institute (PSI)

PSI undertook action research in three locations where PSI itself worked as the project

implementing agency. PSI conducted action research, took up awareness generation activities and

implemented a set of activities as part of its direct interventions. Following activities were

undertaken by PSI.

PRA survey: To mobilize the community for participatory groundwater management, PSI‟s project

team held a number of meetings and conducted PRA exercises in Luhali, Dhyali and Thanakasoga

villages. These activities were used to enlist villagers‟ participation in successful implementation of

the PGWM action research project. The main objective behind conduction of PRA exercises in

these villages was to gather information related to water resources directly from the people - for

example their observation regarding discharge rate of baoris, dependency on traditional sources,

water borne diseases etc. and to find out the status of village level institutions. Resource mapping

provided information on resource use, access of different households in the villages to the water

sources, mapping of seasonal and perennial water resources and the livelihood patterns. It emerged

from these meetings that water from the springs and hand pumps is utilized for meeting domestic

requirements while water from the streams is primarily used for irrigation and other purposes.

During the PRA exercises shortage of domestic water supply and limited irrigation facilities were

identified as the major problems. Water sources in the villages are not well-maintained and water

discharge of the springs decreases during the summer. Thus water scarcity in the summer season is a

major problem in the villages. According to the villagers, some perennial sources have become

seasonal now due to loss of vegetation in the recharge area, road construction and fluctuations in the

rainfall. The villagers meet the water shortages by storing the water supplied by IPH. But IPH

supply is very irregular in the villages. It is only twice in a week in the summer season. The villagers

revealed that lack of irrigation has hindered cultivation of more remunerative crops and fodder for

livestock. Dependency on traditional water sources has increased over the years and so have the

number of water borne disease cases due to poor sanitary practices in the villages. Social mapping in

all the selected villages yielded demographic data and valuable information on the existing social

groups and their inter-relations.

Exposure visit: one day exposure visit was organized for the selected water user group members to

Thakurdwara village in Pachhad block of Sirmour district on 18th May, 2013. SATHI organization in

Thakurdwara was PSI‟s partner organization from 2003-2007. PSI had provided technical support

to this organization in groundwater management and this not only reduced the water shortage

problems but also raised the livelihood levels of the villagers. The main objective behind organizing

the exposure tour to this village was to convince the villagers of Thanakasoga about the fact that

ground water management is important and practically possible and it can enhance their livelihood

possibilities.

Formation of Water Management Committee and Water User Group Formation: An

agreement was signed between the land owners, Water Management Committee (WMC) and PSI for

53

the formation of water user groups and village level water management committee. Selection of the

village level water management committee members was done in the aam sabha meeting in Luhali,

Dhyali and Thana Kasoga villages. The main functions decided for the Water Management

Committee (WMC) were:

Maintenance of baoris.

Protection of vegetative plantations.

Establishment of groundwater management regulations.

Implementation of the groundwater management action plan.

Establishment of a sanitation protocol Additionally, 7 Water User Groups were formed in Thanakasoga (2 groups), Dhayali (3 groups) and Luhali (2 groups). Some rules and regulations were set for smooth functioning of these Water User Groups (WUG). The following rules were agreed upon:

The WUGs will work as a nodal agency at the village level for groundwater management.

All planning, implementation and management activities will be done through the WUGs.

They will hold a general meeting on a monthly basis.

They will be responsible for maintenance of traditional water sources, protection of

plantation, sanitation and groundwater recharge work.

The WUG will prepare a plan for equitable distribution of water.

They can punish anyone not abiding by the rules.

All WUGs will work in coordination with Peoples‟ Science Institute for groundwater

management.

Development of Nursery PSI helped the community in setting up a couple of nurseries in Thanakasoga and Dhayali villages to

grow fodder (Lahsunia, Kachnar, Bamboo) plant saplings. The main objective behind nursery

plantation was to protect groundwater recharge zones by mitigating fodder scarcity problems in the

action research villages. Such zones could then be protected from open grazing by increasing other

areas under fodder plantation. Nursery plantation activities were done in the recharge areas of baori-

2 (Kishan) in Dhayali and baori-1 (Thana Mandir) in Thana kasoga. Sapling varieties were selected as

per the vegetative diversity of the Thana kasoga panchayat area. An

agreement was made with these beneficiaries and the villagers in the

aam sabha. As per the agreement, PSI provided training and support

for raising the nurseries. The nursery beneficiaries take care of the

plants and raise the nursery. The plants are available for sale to the

villagers @ Rs. 5/plant.

54

OVERALL IMPACTS OF PGWM PROGRAMME IN THE PILOT VILLAGES

Formation and capacity building of 3 water management committee(s) and 7 water user

group(s) in Thanakasoga, Dhyali and Luhali villages given the fact that these three villages

are intricately linked to a common aquifer system with well-defined recharge and discharge

zones – as evident from the hydrogeological mapping.

Level of bacteriological contamination (fecal coliform) and chemical contamination (iron)

reduced after the implementation of PGWM programme in the selected villages – recharge

measures were implemented in recharge areas, which were also freed up from open

defecation and earmarked as „protected zones‟..

Hydrogeology proved to be a cost effective science for watershed and spring shed

development desirable results were obtained by identifying the exact recharge area and the

type of interventions to be used. The focus area for recharge interventions was

approximately 2 ha of land area whereas with the traditional technique the area of treatment

would have been around 10 ha. So, hydrogeology enabled cost-effectiveness in

interventions..

Created a mechanism for equitable distribution of benefits (fruit, fodder and water).

Introduction of groundwater sharing mechanism in the villages, particularly around sources.

Drinking water security in all the six locations improved. Moreover, source protection and

cleanliness is in the monthly agenda of WUGs and they are regularly cleaning their water

sources.

Social protection is one of the major outcomes of this programme as 5 recharge sites have

been protected under social fencing in Thanakasoga Panchayat.

Watershed Support Services And Activities Network (WASSAN)

Formation of user groups and user groups federation at village level

1. Organized a exposure visit to the village community leaders from 12 micro watershed

villages to PHM and water sharing sites (APFAMGS, NAIP and APDAI villages)

2. Organized orientation programs and linkages made on Low carbon farming (SRI practice)

3. Trained 15 para hydrogeologists from action research villages

4. Evolved and integrated Hydrogeological perspective planning process and prepared detailed

project reports in 22 micro watersheds (IWMP plan document) with an effort to integrate

PGWM aspects into these programmes.

5. Set up of Participatory Hydrogeological Monitoring units in 12 micro watershed with

convergence of IWMP

6. Water harvesting structures planned based on the recharge areas and discharge area

delineation in 22 micro watersheds projects.

55

7. WASSAN has implemented more than 30 Water Harvesting Structures in 12 micro

watersheds as per plan.

8. Allocation for drinking water for animals implemented in 16 micro watersheds

9. Water security plans prepared for 5 villages along with concerned departments, based on the

experiences from the action research projects.

Major outcomes

1. Farmers from 3 villages have come forward to share their water with non bore well

farmers

2. Proposal submitted to Department of Agriculture for water sharing pilot in 500 Ha

(They have already supporting us in Anantapur)

3. State Level Nodal Agency (SLNA) agreed to integrate Hydrogeological planning

processes in 100 IWMP programs in AP

4. Department of Rural Department agreed to adopt and establishment of PHM system in

state wide watershed programs (IWMP) in AP.

5. Already constructed check dams and percolation tanks recharge structure result may be

observed in next season i.e., 2014-15

6. Livestock drinking water problem was solved in 16 villages

7. 4 villages got approvals for water security plans from MGNREGS for total sanitation

8. Mobilized 20% people contribution for equal distribution of drinking water in 5 villages.

Protocols, if any

Private bore well owners have come forward and sharing water for Livestock drinking water

purpose apart from common water bodies.

5 Villages agreed for equal drinking water distribution to all

households.

3 villages agreed for 100% sanitation and no for open

defecation

Water sharing norms evolved but we have to wait for

budgets for laying of pipe lines from Department of

Agriculture.

56

Key actions and impacts of Action Research at various sites under PGWM

Action research site

Key research elements leading to PGWM actions

Action Impact

Muthalane Aquifer mapping leading to defining limits to aquifer storage and variability in transmissivity

User groups for shared wells for protective irrigation and early rabi cropping; farmers reserved well water for domestic use in summer

Moderately improved agriculture water security; significantly improved (perennial) drinking water security

Randullabad Analysed weather station data; aquifer delineation; groundwater balance

Relative humidity data was used to predict pest attacks on potato crop (farmers‟ initiative) + maximising protective irrigation application for kharif; increased coverage under drip and sprinkler irrigation; restating protocols of sharing and control on bore well drilling; panchayat invested in an additional drinking water source (dug well) maintaining the protocol of a protection zone around drinking water sources

Improved kharif productities; improvement in irrigation and water use efficiency; equitability improved, particularly for farmers using aquifers II and III; improved drinking water security

Kamguna - Vatachhad

Geological mapping; well yield; groundwater quality

Watershed development, recharge and drinking water source protection

Improved recharge to aquifer(s); protocols around drinking water source protection leading to improved drinking water security

Dhyali-Luhali-Thanakasoga

Geological map; springwater discharge; groundwater quality

Identification of spring recharge zones; annual trends of discharge as indicators of impacts; groundwater quality profiling

Recharge work in „aquifer recharge zones‟; protected recharge zones and areas around sources – particularly from open defecation – and clear-cut impacts of interventions in improved spring discharge and quality

Pargi cluster Geological mapping; Recharge structures as Improved recharge to

57

water level data; well-usage data; protection irrigation coverage data

part of watershed development located based on hydrogeology; bore hole pooling for provision of protective irrigation in kharif – sharing of groundwater at least in kharif season

aquifers; all farms in many villages had access to protective irrigation leading to participatory groundwater management in kharif; improved kharif productivities

Overall Geology, hydrogeology (groundwater level and quality data), aquifer characteristics; socio-economic data

Recharge and watershed development, participatory use of groundwater resources; protection of recharge zones and sources; aquifer-based water balances; impact assessment - agriculture & drinking water security

Geohydrological application to watershed programme; groundwater sharing in agriculture – equity; improved application through efficient water application; protective irrigation; drinking water security; improved impact assessment

58

Summary of protocols developed and implemented as part of PGWM

Protocols

ACWADAM (Basalt aquifers)

ACT (Sedimentary aquifers)

PSI (Himalayan mountain – metasedimentary aquifers)

WASSAN (Crystalline aquifers)

Hydrogeology in Watershed Programmes

Implemented across all sites, with indicated success through water level rise, water quality improvement and aquifer storage enhancement

Recharge area protection (forest cover & community lands)

Partially implemented at both locations

Fully implemented with all the recharge zones identified

Partially implemented at some of the sites

Pump capacity regulation

Implemented in Muthalne through well-user groups

Not applicable

Regulation of distance between wells (drinking water source protection)

Implemented at both sites, including future risk mitigation

Implemented in all villages where focused work on PGWM was implemented

Implemented at all drinking water sources

Partially implemented at some of the sites

Depth Regulation (wrt drinking well)

PGWM-based intervention of drinking water sources being deepest with resolutions in gram sabha regarding depth of irrigation wells ( and no bore wells)

Not applicable

Regulation of agricultural water requirement (crop water requirement)

Communities have idea about the limits to groundwater availability – so, indirectly implementing protocol; drips and sprinklers in Randullabad plus crop-based management (sorghum instead of wheat in the rabi season following the low-rainfall cycle of 2012-13)

Limits to groundwater availability available through para hydrogeologists – so, communities aware

Improvements through the use of drips and sprinklers for irrigated lands has ensured regulation

Groundwater sharing through community participation

Developed for Muthalane and strengthened for Randullabad

Implemented in many of the project villages, particularly for sharing sources and distributing protective irrigation in Kharif season

Drinking water quality monitoring

Implemented in both villages, with systems of continued monitoring

Implemented in many villages

Implemented for all sources with systems of continued monitoring

59

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