Chapter Four:Writing Strategies and Ethical

Considerations

Chapter OutlineWriting Strategies and Ethical Considerations

Writing the Proposal Arguments Presented in a ProposalFormat for a Qualitative Proposal

Example 4.1. A Qualitative Constructivist/Interpretivist FormatExample 4.2. A Qualitative Transformative Format Format for a Quantitative ProposalExample 4.3. A Quantitative Format Format for a Mixed Methods Proposal Example 4.4. A Mixed Methods FormatDesigning the Sections of a ProposalWriting IdeasWriting as Thinking The Habit of Writing Readability of the ManuscriptExample 4.5. An Illustration of the Hook-and-Eye Technique Voice, Tense, and “Fat” Ethical Issues to AnticipatePrior to Beginning the Study 95 Beginning the Study 97 Collecting the Data 97 Analyzing the Data 99 Reporting, Sharing, and Storing Data

Writing the Proposal• What are the major points that will be

addressed in the proposal?• How will these major points convey a

coherent study?• What are the core arguments to be advanced

in the proposal?

9 questions one should ask when writing a research proposal:

1. What do readers need to better understand the topic?2. What do readers need to know about the topic?3. What do you propose to study?4. What is the setting, and who are the people you will study?5. What methods do you plan to use to collect data?6. How will you analyze the data?7. How will you validate the findings?8. What ethical issues will your study present?9. What do preliminary results show about the practicability

and value of the proposed study?

Format for a Qualitative Constructivist/Interpretive Proposal

See Example 4.1

• Introduction– Statement of the problem (including

deficiencies in the literature, and relevance of the study for audiences)

– Purpose of the study– The research questions

• Procedures– Philosophical assumptions about

qualitative research– Qualitative design– Role of the researcher– Data collection procedures– Data analysis procedures – Strategies for validating findings– Proposed narrative structure

• Anticipated ethical issues• Significance of the study• Preliminary pilot findings• Expected outcomes • References• Appendices:

– Interview questions– Observational forms– Timeline– Proposed budget– Summary of proposed content for

each chapter

Format for a Qualitative Transformative Proposal

See Example 4.2• Introduction Statement of the problem (including issues

to be addressed, existing literature about the problem, deficiencies in the literature, and relevance of the study for audiences)

• ProceduresPhilosophical assumptions or worldviewQualitative research strategyRole of the ResearcherData collection procedureData analysis procedureStrategies for validating findingsProposed narrative structure Anticipated ethical issues

• Preliminary pilot findings• Significance of the study and

transformative changes likely• References• AppendixesInterview questionsObservational formsTimelineProposed budgetSummary of proposed chapters

Format for a Quantitative ProposalSee Example 4.3

• Introduction– Statement of the problem (issue,

existing literature about the problem, deficiencies in the literature, relevance of the study for audiences)

– Purpose of the study– Research questions or hypotheses– Theoretical perspective

• Review of the Literature• Methods

– Type of research design– Population, sample, and participants– Data collection instruments,

variables, and materials– Data analysis procedures

• Anticipated ethical issues• Preliminary studies or pilot tests• Appendices:

– Instruments– Timeline– Proposed budget

Format for a Mixed Methods ProposalSee Example 4.4

• Introduction– The research problem – Existing research on the problem– Deficiencies in the literature– Relevance of the study to audiences• Purpose• Research questions and hypotheses– Quantitative questions or hypothesis– Qualitative questions– Mixed methods questions

• Philosophical foundations for using mixed methods research

• Literature review• Methods

– Definition of mixed methods– Type of design and its definition– Challenges in using design and how they will

be addressed– Examples of this design– Reference and Inclusion of a visual diagram

– Quantitative data collection – Quantitative data analysis– Qualitative data collection – Qualitative data analysis– Mixed methods data analysis procedures– Validity approaches

• Researcher's resources and skills• Potential ethical issues• References • Appendices:

– Instruments – Protocols– Diagram– Timeline – Budget– Summary of major content for each chapter

Designing the Sections of a Proposal

• Specify the sections early in the design of a proposal• Find proposals that other students have authored

under your advisor and look at them closely• Determine whether your program or institution

offers a course on proposal development or some similar topic

• Sit down with your advisor, and go over his or her preferred format for a proposal

Writing Ideas• Read widely fiction and nonfiction• Read good literature• Always think about how the ideas writers

share in their works might be applied in writing good research

Writing as Thinking• Write ideas down early in the process rather

than talking about them• Work through several drafts of a proposal

rather than trying to polish the first draft• Do not edit at the early-draft stage– Start with an outline– Write a draft and shift and sort ideas – Finally, edit and polish each sentence

The Habit of Writing• Make writing a daily activity• Chart your daily activities in one-hour blocks so you can identify possible

writing time• Write while you are fresh• Avoid writing in binges• Write in small regular amounts• Schedule writing to allow for work on specific manageable chunks• Keep a daily chart, account for a) time spent writing, b) page equivalents

finished, and c) percentage of planned task completed• Plan beyond daily goals• Share your writing with supportive, constructive peers before going public• Try to work on two or three writing projects concurrently so that you do

not become overloaded with any one

The Habit of Writing Cont.The following are suggested exercises that may improve one’s writing:• Describe an object by its parts and dimensions• Write a conversation between two people• Write a set of directions for a complicated task• Take a subject and write about it three different ways• Choose a physical location for writing that is not a distraction

Readability of the ManuscriptBefore writing, consider how you will enhance its readability for the audience:•Use consistent terms throughout the proposal•Consider how narrative thoughts of different types guide the reader:Umbrella thoughts: General or core ideasBig thoughts in writing: Specific ideas Little thoughts: Reinforcing ideasAttention or interest thoughts: Meant to keep the reader on track, organize ideas•Use coherence to add to the readability of the manuscript: Connect sentences and paragraphs in the manuscriptSee Example 4.5

Voice, Tense, and “Fat”• Keep the essential words and delete the passive voice• Scale down qualifiers, eliminate overused phrases• Reduce excessive quotations, use of italics, and parenthetical

comments• Use the active voice as much as possible, if the subject acts,

the voice is active• Use strong active verbs• Pay close attention to the tense of your verbs, use the present

tense to add vigor to the study• Expect to edit and revise drafts of a manuscript to trim fat,

this process typically consists of writing, reviewing, and editing

Ethical Issues to Anticipate• Because research involves collecting data from people,

Researchers need to:– Protect research participants– Personal disclosure, authenticity and credibility of

research report – Develop trust with research participants– Promote the integrity of research– Guard against misconduct– Cope with new problems that emerge

Ethical Issues: Prior to Beginning the Study

• Consider codes of ethics, see the code of ethics for your professional association

• Apply for the institutional review board (IRB)or human subjects review board (HSRB)

• Obtain the necessary permissions to gain access to the site and to study participants

• Select a site without vested interests• Negotiate authorship for publication

Ethical Issues: Beginning the Study• In the Research Problem– Identify a problem that will benefit individuals

being studied• In the Purpose and Questions

Convey the purpose and sponsors of the research to participants

• Do not pressure participants into signing consent forms, obtain informed consent from participants

• Respect norms and charters of indigenous cultures

Ethical Issues: Collecting the Data• Respect the site, and disrupt as little as possible• Make sure all participants receive the benefits• Avoid deceiving participants• Respect potential power imbalances, consider reciprocity• Avoid exploitation of participants• Avoid collecting harmful information, do not put participants

at risk• Respect vulnerable populations• Address issues of confidentiality• Interview with sensitivity• Anticipate issues that may arise

Ethical Issues: Data Analysis• Avoid going native, do not take sides or disregard

data that proves or disproves personal hypotheses• Avoid disclosing only positive results, data analysis

should reflect the statistical tests and not be underreported

• Respect the privacy of participants: – Protecting anonymity of participants– Storing data and destroying it after a set time– Planning for ownership of the data and not

sharing data with others

Ethical Issues: Reporting, Sharing, and Storing Data

• Do not falsify authorship, evidence, data, findings or conclusions

• Do not plagiarize• Avoid disclosing information that would harm participants• Communicate in clear straightforward, appropriate language• Share data with others (example: stakeholders, participants)• Keep raw data and other materials for a reasonable period of

time• Do not duplicate or piecemeal publications• Complete proof of compliance with ethical issues and lack of

conflict of interest• Understand who owns the data