chapter – i women empowerment in...

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CHAPTER – I

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN INDIA�

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Chapter – I

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN INDIA INTRODUCTION

The status of women in India has been subject to many great changes over the

past few millennia.1 In ancient times, Indian women used to enjoy equal status with men.

Many reformers and social workers protected the rights of women either because of the

role of women in the society or their special character as described in Upanishads. But

during the Medieval period, the rights of women have declined in spite of arguments and

support from many reformers2. In modern India, women have been holding high level

positions in administration, corporate sector and politics. They held high positions such

as President of India, Prime Minister of India, Speaker of Loksabha, etc., in Indian

Parliament. Despite these facts, women in modern India are exposed to various social

problems and issues. According to a global study conducted by Thomson Reuters, India

is the "fourth most dangerous country" in the world for women.3

An analysis of research studies on women’s status in India indicates that the

status of women started declining around approximately 500 BC. During Vedic period it

is noted that women enjoyed equal rights, sometimes better status than men. Women’s

rights were curtailed and more protectionist attitude towards women prevailed during

medieval period. Many restrictions and conditions were put on women’s education,

religious rights and privileges and on their social and political activities.

The role and status of women in India was clarified in Manu Smriti. Manu fully

recognized the importance of women as a component complement of man. The role of

women is crucial for formation of a live society, as per Manu. However, he is of the

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1 Arvind Sharma, “Women in Indian Religions (E.d.)” Oxford University Press, 2002, New Delhi. P.104. 2 Mahajan, V.D. Modern Indian History,Delhi (2010), S. Chand Publication, P. 82. 3 India fourth most dangerous place for women: survey, NDTV, 2002

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opinion that women cannot be independent of men. Her activities should be controlled

and monitored by men at every stage; otherwise, her independence is harmful to the

society in all respects. This belief was wide spread in the Indian society of those days

and led to the imposition of restrictions on women’s freedom. Therefore, the status of

women in India especially in Hindu society deteriorated remarkably. Further, with

the Islamic invasion of Babur and the Mughal Empire and later Christianity, women’s

status worsened4 still. Although reformatory movements such as Jainism allowed

women to be admitted to the religious order, by and large, women in India faced

confinement and restrictions.

The Indian woman's position in the society further deteriorated during the

medieval period when Sati among some communities, child marriages and a ban on

widow remarriages became part of social life in India5. Further to this, the Mughal entry

into Indian subcontinent has brought purdah practice by women concealing the whole

appearance of women to the public. Similarly, the practice of Jauhar among the Rajputs

of Rajastan has been another impediment on the movements of women. Polygamy

among Hindu Kshatriya rulers6, sexual exploitation of Devadasis or the temple women

are some of the incidents of deterioration of women status. In rich Muslim families

women were restricted to Zenanas.

Many reformers, such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra

Vidyasagar, Jyotirao Phule, etc., fought for the up-liftment of women during British

rule. With the passage of time women’s role in the Indian society was well recognized by

eminent people like Peary Charan Sarkar, a member of Young Bengal who setup first

free school for girls in 1847 in a suburb of Calcutta. In 1917 there was the first women’s

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4 "Dr. Asghar, Ali Engineer, Islam in India – The Impact of Civilization. Delhi (2002), Shipra, P. 6. 5 Lalneihzov, Women’s Developmnt in India: Problemsand Prospects, (E.d.), Agra, Azmi Publication, P.

82. 6 Praven Kumar Kamat (2004-1). "Status of Women in Medieval India". Dheena Publication, Delhi, 24

December 2004.

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delegation to the secretary of the State, demanding women’s political rights which were

supported by Indian National Congress. The All India Women’s Education Conference

held at Pune in 1927 and enactment of the Child Marriage Restraint Act in 1929 are

some of the events that indicate the recognition of women in Indian society. With the

efforts of Muhammad Ali Jinnah7, Child Marriage Restraint Act, stipulating 14 years as

the minimum age of marriage for the girl was passed. Though Mahatma Gandhi himself

married at the age of thirteen, he later urged people to boycott child marriages and called

upon the young men to marry child widows.8

During India’s freedom struggle women played a significant role. Smt. Sarojini

Naidu, an acknowledged poet and a freedom fighter was the first Indian woman to

become the President of the Indian National Congress. Later, she also became the first

woman Governor of a State in India. Women in India now participate in all activities

such as education, sports, politics, media, art and culture, service sectors, science and

technology, etc9. The Constitution of India guarantees equality to all Indian Women

(Article 14), no discrimination by the State (Article 15(1)), equality of opportunity

(Article 16), and equal pay for equal work (Article 39(d)). In addition, it allows special

provisions to be made by the State in favour of women and children (Article 15(3)),

renounces practices derogatory to the dignity of women (Article 51(A) (e)), and also

allows for provisions to be made by the State for securing just and humane conditions of

work and for maternity relief (Article 42)10. Later, the feminist activism in India picked

up momentum during later 1970s. In 1990s, grants from foreign donor agencies enabled

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7 Kalayani Meenon, "Info Change women: Background & Perspective". 24 Inomic Publications, Delhi, December 2005.

8 Jyotsna Kamat (19 December 2006). "Gandhi and Status of Women". Alliance Publications, Mumabi. 24 December 2006.

9 "Women in History". National Resource Center for Women. Background Papers, Parliament House,24 December 2004.

10 Kalyani Menon-Sen, A. K. Shiva Kumar (2001). "Women in India: How Free? How Equal?". United Nations. Archived from the original on 11 September 2006. Agani Publications, Cennai, 24 December 2006.

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the formation of new women-oriented Non-Government Organizations (NGOs). Self-

Help Groups (SHGs) and NGOs such as Self Employment Women’s Association

(SEWA) have played a major role in women's rights in India. Many women emerged as

leaders of local movements. The Government of India declared 2001 as the Year of

Women's Empowerment (Swashakti)11. The National Policy for the Empowerment of

Women was passed in 200112 . In 2010 March 9, one day after International Women's

day, the Rajyasabha passed Women's Reservation Bill, ensuring thirty three per cent

reservation to women in Parliament and State Legislative Bodies13.

Women Development in India during Five Year Plans:

It has been realized that the progress of any nation is significantly influenced

and determined by the status and development of women. In India, the era of

development of Indian women was started with the appointment of a Committee on the

status of women in India in 1971 to examine the rights and status of women in the

context of changing social and economic conditions in the country. With this attempt, the

paradigm shift from welfare to development has begun. Further, this shift was largely

moved for women's development during, the Fifth Plan (1974-79), mainly because of the

impetus of the International Women's Year (1975) and International Women's Decade

(1975-85), with the aim of integration of welfare with the developmental services. From

there onwards, the Government of India has been formulating and implementing certain

policies and programmes to achieve advancement of Women and to eliminate

discrimination.

In the First Five Year Plan (1951-56) the concept of women development was

mainly 'welfare' oriented. During this period, number of welfare programmes and ��

11 Mazumdar, Maya. Social Status of Women in India, Delhi, Publishers and Distributors, Delhi, 2004. 12 "National Policy for the Empowerment of Women (2001)". 24 December 2005Govt of India Report. 13 "Rajya Sabha passes Women's Reservation Bill". The Hindu (Chennai, India). 10 March 2010. Retrieved

25 August 2010.

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measures were undertaken by the Central Social Welfare Board (CSWR.), set up in

1953, and its programmes implemented through voluntary organizations. Women were

largely organized into Mahila Mandals in the Second Five Year Plan (1956-61) to play a

vital role in the development of women at the grass-roots level. This Mahila Mandal

scheme was introduced to help the village woman to become "a good wife, a wise

mother, a competent housewife and a responsible member of the village Community.

The development approach for women was largely moved in the Fifth Five Year Plan

(1974-79) with the focus on education, health and family planning and welfare.

A systematic plan was formulated against the background of the report of the

Committee on the status of women in India, 'Towards Equality'14. The Sixth Five Year

Plan was a landmark in the history of women's development, as it was recognized as one

of the developmental sectors. It also recognized the low status of women in large

segments of Indian society, which cannot be raised without opening up opportunities of

independent employment and income for them. As such, Development of Women and

Children in Rural Area (DWCRA), was started as a pilot project in 50 districts in 1982-

83 in the country15. The main strategy for women's development adopted in Sixth Five

Year Plan was noted to be three fold: education, employment and health. These were

recognized as interdependent and dependent on the total development process.

In the Seventh Five Year Plan16 (1985-90), the identification and promotion of

'beneficiary oriented programmes' for women in different developmental sectors have

been implemented with a view to raise women's economic and social status and to bring

them into the mainstream of national development. Further, the plan proposed an

increasing participation of women in Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)

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14 Kurien. P.K., Five Year Plan Saving for Development. A Linkage Model for Informal and Formal Financial Markets. Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture, 24/4: 390-398

15 Mangasri, K., 1999, Empowerment of DWCRA Groups in Ranga Reddy District of Andhra Pradesh. Ph. D. Thesis, Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.

16 India Seventh Five Year Plan most dangerous country for women: Poll, Indian Express

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and Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP).

In the Eighth Five Year Plan17 (1992-97) attempts were made to make women as

equal partners and participants in the developmental process, by way of monitoring the

flow of benefits to women in the core sectors like education, health and employment.

Thus Eighth Plan makes a shift from ‘women development’ to ‘women empowerment’.

The paradigm of women development has really come a long way by moving from

growth to growth with equity, from bureaucratic delivery of services to people's

participation, from economic development to human development and from asset and

services endowment to empowerment.

The Eleventh Five Year Plan acknowledges women’s agencies and tries to ensure

that their needs, rights and contributions are reflected in every section of the plan

document. For the first time in the history of Indian planning there is an attempt to move

beyond empowerment and recognize women as agents of sustained socio-economic

growth and change.

A significant step in the political empowerment of women was also made through

73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments of 1993 for the advancement of women with

the reservation of 1/3 of the seats in local bodies in rural areas as well as in urban areas

for women.

Andhra Pradesh is moving ahead well over other States by strictly implementing

the rule of reservation of 1/3 of seats in schools and colleges as well as in the

Government Jobs at all levels. Perhaps the policy of reservation of 1/3 in Legislatures as

well as in Parliament brings in radical social change in the tradition bound Indian

society. A consensus on the reservation bill is yet to be arrived at which is ready to be

introduced in Parliament. ��

17 Eighth Five Year Plan Saving for Development. A Linkage Model for Informal and Formal Financial Markets. Quarterly Journal of International of Social Studies, 24/4: 390-398

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Women’s Development in India:

Women development of any nation can be determined by female work

participation rate, female literacy rate as well as by some health indicators like female

life expectancy18. Thus changes in female labour force participation, female literacy and

health status determine the women development even in India also. In this sub-section, a

table is given regarding the female labour force participation (work participation) in

India as a whole during 1971-2010, State-wise female labour force participation rates

during 1981-91, female literacy during 1951-2011, State-wise female literacy rates

during 1981-2011, and female life expectancy in India during 1901-2011 as compared

with males.

Female Labour Force Participation:

Many studies19 on this theme reveal that participation in economic activities does

not necessarily enhance the social status of women. Regardless of the economic systems

or the form of economic production, the social forces, norms and conditions affect the

status of women. Employment of women does not necessarily lead to economic

independence or control over earnings. What exactly determines the male-female

differences in the work field is yet to be ascertained and most studies have not helped in

understanding the processes and economic explanations are but partial20. Work

participation rate is defined as the percentage of workers to total population.

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18 Shweta Singh (2009). Examining the Dharma Driven Identity of Women: Mahabharata’s Kunti - In the Woman Question in the Contemporary Indian English Women Writings, Ed. Indu Swami, Sarup: Delhi.

19 Singh, S., 1997, Constraints perceived in income generating activities under DWCRA. Khadigramodyog, 93(9) : 478-485.

20 Srinivasan, G., 1996, Group approach to empowerment of rural women – IFAD experience in Tamil Nadu state. Working Paper 5, Banker’s Institute of Rural Development, Lucknow, December, 1996.

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Table-1.1 Percentage of Labour Force participation in India from 1971 to 2010.

Note: 1.Exclude Assam and Jammu and Kashmir where the 1981 and 1991 Census, respectively could not be held. 2.1971 figures are total of workers and non-workers, with secondary work whereas '1981 and 1991 Figures are total of main and marginal workers. Source: - Government of India, Census of India, 2001, Series I, India, Paper 3 of 2001, Registrar- General India, Government of India, Census of India, 2001, Series’ India, Paper II of 2002, Registrar General India. Government of India, Census of India, 2010, Series I, India, Paper 3 of 2010, Registrar- General India, Government of India, Census of India, 2010, Series’ India.

Table 1.1 presents the percentage of labour force participation during 1971-2010

in India. It shows that the female labour force participation rates for total, rural and urban

population have increased during this period. For instance, the proportion of female

labour force participation has increased from fifteen per cent in 1971 to twenty two per

cent in 2010. Similarly, it has increased from sixteen per cent to thirty one per cent in the

case of rural population and from seven per cent to eleven per cent in the case of urban

population during 1971-2001. In contrast, the percentage of male labour force

Year Rural/Urban Male Female Total

1971

Total 52.75 14.22 34.17

Rural 53.78 15.92 35.33

Urban 48.88 7.18 29.61

1981

Total 52.62 19.67 36.70

Rural 53.77 23.06 38.79

Urban 49.06 8.31 29.99

1991

Total 51.61 22.27 37.50

Rural 52.58 26.79 40.09

Urban 48.92 9.19 30.16

2001

Total 51.09 21.71 39.31

Rural 52.41 31.00 42.00

Urban 50.90 11.60 32.22

2010

Total 52.01 22.51 41.02

Rural 53.33 32.07 33.02

Urban 51.96 23.60 33.05

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participation rate has slightly declined for total as well as rural population and remains

same for urban population during this period.

It has declined by one per cent i.e. from fifty three per cent in 1971 to fifty two

per cent in 2010 in the case of male population and from fifty four per cent in 1971 to

fifty three per cent in 2010 in the case of rural population and it has increased by three

per cent i.e., forty nine per cent in 1971 to fifty two per cent in 200121. Thus the

increasing tendency of female labour force participation reflects the lower status of

women, even though it significantly contributes to India’s economic development.

Women participation rate is normally lower than male participation rate because

women’s participation is contingent upon certain factors more than male participation

rates. This includes economic needs, institutional factors, and the kinds of employment

available especially if the employment can be combined with their primary obligation at

home and in the family.

Composition of Labour Force Participation in India during 1981-91

Table 1.2 presents percentage of composition of labour force participation of

different States during 1981-91 in India. The data presented in the table reveals that

Punjab, the most developed State has the lowest female labour force participation (four

per cent) and Mizoram has the highest female labour force participation (forty four per

cent) in India in 199122. The developed States like Haryana (eleven per cent), West

Bengal (eleven per cent), Kerala (sixteen per cent) and Goa (twenty one per cent) have

lower female labour force participation than the national average of twenty two per cent

in 1991.

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21 Sundaram, P. And Singh, S., 1995, Assessment of DWCRA programme on modalities of operation. Kurukshetra, 43(3) : 96-99.

22 Mainstreaming Informal Financial Institutions. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 16/1: 83-9, 2001.

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Table-1.2: Composition of Labour Force Participation in India during 1981-91 (State-wise)

(in Percentage) S. No.

India/ State/Union Territories

1981 1991 Female Male Total Female Male Total

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. INDIA 19.67 52.62 36.70 22.27 51.61 37.50 STATES

1. Andhra Pradesh 33.54 57.68 45.76 34:32 55.48 45.05 2.

Arunachal Pradesh 45.67 58.63 52.63 37.49 53.76 46.24 3. Assam NA NA NA 21.61 49.45 36.09 4. Bihar 13.50 50.18 32.35 14.66 47.92 32.16 5. Goa 21.88 48.48 35.35 20.52 49.56 35.21 6. Gujarat 20.66 52.91 37.27 25.96 53.57 40,23 7 Haryana 10.60 49.93 31.63 10.76 48.51 31.00 8. Himachal Pradesh 31.66 52.61 42.38 34.81 50.64 42.83 9. Jammu and Kashmir 31.31 55.81 44.26 NA NA NA

10. Karnataka 25.33 54.59 40.24 25.39 54.09 41.99 11. Kerala 16.61 44.89 30.53 15.85 47.58 31.43 12. Madhya Pradesh 30.64 54.48 42.92 32.68 52.26 42.82 13. Maharashtra 30.63 53.73 42.56 33.11 52.17 42.97 14. Manipur 39.48 46.80 43.20 35.96 45.27 42.18 15. Meghalaya 37.49 53.96 45.92 34.93 50.07 42.67 16. Mizoram 37.72 52.54 45.44 43.52 53.67 48.91 17. Nagaland 43.20 52.58 48.23 37.96 46.86 42.68 18. Orissa 19.81 55.86 38.01 20.79 53.79 37.53 19. Punjab 6.16 53.76 31.50 4.40 54.22 30.88 20. Rajastan 21.06 50.90 36.61 27.40 49.30 38.87 21. Sikkim 37.61 57.22 48.30 30.41 51.26 41.51 22. Tamil Nadu 26.52 56.58 41.73 29.89 56.39 43.31 23. Tripura 12.78 50.71 32.27 13.76 47.55 31.14 24. Uttar Pradesh 8.07 50.76 30.72 12.32 49.68 32.20 25. West Bengal 8.07 50.30 30.17 11.25 51.40 32.19

UNION TERRITORIES:

1. Andaman & Nicobar Islands 10.78 56.71 36.88 13.13 53.32 35.24

2. Chandigarh 9.10 54.77 34.92 10.39 54.34 34.94 3. Dadra & Nagar

Haveli 41.33 56.32 43.92 48.79 57.50 53.25

4. Daman & Diu 22.62 44.49 33.22 23.17 51.63 37.63 5. Delhi 6.84 52.67 32.19 7.36 51.72 31.64 6. Lakshadweep 24.39 39.24 9.16 7.60

44.17 26.43

7. Pondicherry 30.41 47.08 13.48 33.08 50.55 15.24 Source: - Government of India, Census of India, 1991, Series I, India, Paper 3 of 1991, Registrar-

General India, Government of India, Census of India, 1991, Series’ India, Paper II of 1992, Registrar General India.

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All the Southern States except Kerala have higher female labour force

participation than the national average in 1991. It is thirty four, twenty five and thirty per

cent in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu respectively. Maharashtra and

Gujarat also have higher female labour force participation than national average of

twenty two per cent in 1991. It is thirty three per cent in Maharashtra and twenty six per

cent in Gujarat.

The backward States like Madhya Pradesh (MP) and Rajasthan have higher

female labour force participation than the national average of twenty two per cent in

1991. It is thirty three per cent in MP and twenty seven per cent in Rajasthan. Thus

female labour force participation in different States in 1991 reflects the female status and

development in those respective States.

In the case of union territories23, Delhi has the lowest (seven per cent) and Dadra

and Nagar Haveli have the highest (forty nine per cent) female work participation

respectively in 1991. Except Daman and Diu all other union territories have lower

female labour force participation than national average 1991. Daman and Diu has a

figure close to national percentage (twenty three).

Gender-wise Literacy in India from 1951 to 2011:

The sex-wise literacy rates in India during 1951-2011 are presented in Table 1.3.

It can be noted from the Table that female literacy rate is far below that of male literacy

rate. The 2011 census report indicates literacy among women as 65.46 per cent. It is

virtually disheartening to observe that the literacy rate of women in India is even much

lower than national average i.e., seventy four per cent. However, it increased from nine

per cent in 1951 to sixty five per cent in 2011.

Table-1.3: Gender-wise Literacy in India from 1951 to 2011 ��

23 MSME, News Letter, History matters in Self Help Groups. Small Enterprise Development, 14/2: 10-12, 2003.

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Year Percentage of Literates to Population Female Male Total

1951 8.86 27.16 18.33 1961 15.24 40.40 28.31 1971 21.97 45.95 34.45 1981 29.75 56.37 43.56 1991 39.29 64.13 52.21 2001 53.7 75.30 64.80 2011 65.46 82.14 74.04

Note: 1. Literacy rates for 1951, 1961 and 1971 census relate to population aged five years and above. The

rates for 1981, 1991and 2001 census relate to population aged seven years and above. 2. The1981 rates exclude Assam where 1981 census could not be conducted and the 1991 rates

exclude Jammu and Kashmir where 1991census was not conducted. Source:

1. Census 2011, Paper 1, Registrar General, and Census Commissioner, India.

State–wise Female Literacy in India during 1991-2011:

Table 1.4 presents the State-wise literacy by sex in India during I99I-2011.

Female literacy is an important variable, which positively associated with socio-

economic development and demographic transition. The table shows that Kerala has the

highest (eighty sex per cent) and Rajasthan has the lowest (twenty one per cent) female

literacy in India in 1991. After one decade also, Kerala has the highest (eighty eight per

cent) but Jharkhand has the lowest (thirty nine per cent) female literacy in 2001.

According to Census 2011 the female literacy in Kerala has the highest (ninety two per

cent) and Rajasthan has the lowest (fifty three per cent). The female literacy is higher in

the developed States like Punjab (seventy one), Goa (eighty two per cent), Maharashtra

(seventy five per cent) Gujarat (seventy one per cent) West Bengal (seventy two per

cent) and Tamil Nadu (seventy four per cent) and lower in the backward States like Bihar

(fifty three per cent) Madhya Pradesh (sixty per cent), Orissa (sixty four per cent) and

Uttar Pradesh (sixty per cent) than that of national average of sixty five per cent in India

in 2011. In Andhra Pradesh, it is lower (sixty per cent) than that of national average of

sixty five per cent and even than the backward neighboring State of Orissa. Thus it

reveals the socio - economic development of the concerned State as well as the status and

development of women in that State.

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In the case of Union territories24 Lakshadweep has the highest (eighty eight per

cent) and Dadra and Nagar Haveli has the lowest (sixty six per cent) female literacy in

2011 and except Dadra Nagar Haveli, all other Union Territories have higher female

literacy than that of National average of sixty five per cent in the year 200125.

The trend of female literacy in India during 1981-2001 can be observed here. It

has significantly increased in all the States and union territories. For instance, in India as

a whole, it has increased from thirty to fifty four per cent. In Andhra Pradesh, it has

increased from twenty four to fifty four per cent. In Kerala, the highest literate State, it

has increased from seventy six to eighty eight per cent and in Bihar the lowest literate

State, it has increased from seventeen to fifty five per cent. In Lakshadweep the highest

literate union territory, it has increased from fifty five to eighty per cent.

Female Life Expectancy in India 1901-2011

Female life expectancy is an important demographic variable that indicates health

status of women. Life expectancy at birth is a measure of overall quality of life in a

country and summarizes the mortality at all ages. It can also be thought of as indicating

the potential return on investment in human capital and is necessary for the calculation of

various actuarial measures. Table 1.5 presents the life expectancy by sex in India, during

1901-2011. The Table contains the average number of years to be lived by a group of

people born in the same year. It shows that the female life expectancy has very

significantly increased from twenty three years in 1901-11 decade to sixty eight years in

2006-11. Thus it increased by forty five years during the period26. If we compare the life

expectancy of female with male, it is slightly higher up to 1920, more or less similar up

to 1950, lower up to 1980 and slightly higher afterwards. Since last one decade, women

lived three years more than their male counterpart.

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24 Vimla Dang (19 June 1998). "Feudal Mindset Still Dogs Women's Struggle". The Tribune. 24 December 2006.

25 WP 1997-6, http://www.uni-koeln.de/ew-fak/aef/; Economics and Sociology Occasional Paper 2371. Rural Finance Program, Dept. Of Agricultural Economics, Ohio State University

26 Nambiar. R.J. ‘Women Entreprenuers in India’ Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 16/1: 83-95, 2011.

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Table-1.4 State-wise Literacy Rates by Sex in India during1991-2011 *Excludes Assam and Jammu & Kashmir.

Sl.No

India State/Union

Territories 1991 2001 2011

Female Male Total Female Male Total Female Male Total 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 INDIA* 39.19 64.2 52.19 53.70 75.3 64.8 65.46 82.14 74.04

STATES: 1 Andhra Pradesh 32.72 55.13 44.09 50.4 70.3 60.5 59.74 75.56 67.66 2 Arunachal Pradesh 29.69 51.45 41.59 43.5 63.8 54.3 59.57 73.69 66.95 3 Bihar 22.89 52.49 38.48 54.6 71.3 63.3 53.33 73.39 63.82 4 Chhattisgarh - - - 51.9 77.4 64.7 60.59 81.45 71.04 5 Goa 67.09 83.64 75.51 75.4 88.4 82 81.84 92.81 87.40 6 Gujarat 46.64 73.13 61.29 57.8 79.7 69.1 70.73 87.23 79.31 7 Haryana 40.47 69.1 55.85 55.7 78.5 67.9 66.77 85.38 76.64 8 Himachal Pradesh 52.,13 75.36 63.66 67.4 85.3 76.5 76.60 90.83 83.78 9 Jharkhand - - - 38.9 67.3 53.6 56.21 78.45 67.63

10 Karnataka 44.34 67.26 56.04 56.9 76.1 66.6 68.13 82.85 75.60 11 Kerala 86.17 93.62 89.81 87.7 94.2 90.9 91.98 96.02 93.91 12 Madhya Pradesh 28.65 58.42 44.2 50.3 76.1 63.7 60.02 80.53 70.63 13 Maharashtra 52.32 76.56 64.87 67 86 76.9 75.48 89.92 82.91 14 Manipur 47.60 71.63 59.89 60.5 80.3 70.5 73.17 86.49 79.85 15 Meghalaya 44.40 53.12 49.1 59.6 65.4 62.6 73.78 77.17 75.48 16 Mizoram 78.6 85.61 82.27 86.7 90.7 88.8 89.40 93.72 91.58 17 Nagaland 54.75 67.62 61.65 61.5 71.2 66.6 76.69 83.29 80.11 18 Orissa 34.68 63.09 49.09 50.5 75.3 63.1 64.36 82.40 73.45 19 Punjab 50.41 65.66 58.51 63.4 75.2 69.7 71.34 81.48 76.68 20 Rajasthan 20.44 54.99 38.55 43.9 75.7 60.4 52.66 80.51 67.06 21 Sikkim 46.69 65.74 56.94 60.4 76 68.8 76.43 87.29 82.20 22 Tamil Nadu 51.33 73.75 62.66 64.4 82.4 73.5 73.86 86.81 80.33 23 Tripura 49.65 70.58 60.44 64.9 81 73.2 83.15 92.18 87.75 24 Uttar Pradesh 25.31 55.73 41.6 42.2 68.8 56.3 59.26 79.24 69.72 25 Uttarakhand - - - 59.6 83.3 71.6 70.70 88.33 79.63 26 West Bengal 46.56 67.61 57.7 59.6 77 68.6 71.16 82.67 77.08

UNION TERRITORIES 1 Andaman& Nicobar Islands 65.46 78.99 73.02 75.2 86.3 81.3 81.84 90.11 86.27 2 Chandigarh 72.34 62.04 77.81 76.5 86.1 81.9 81.38 90.54 86.43 3 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 26.98 53.56 40.71 40.2 71.2 57.6 65.93 86.45 77.65 4 Daman & Diu 59.40 82.66 71.2 65.6 86.8 78.2 79.58 91.48 87.07 5 Delhi 66.99 62.01 75.29 74.7 87.3 81.7 80.93 91.03 86.34 6 Lakshadweep 72.69 90.18 81.78 80.5 92.5 86.7 88.25 96.11 92.28 7 Pondicherry 65.63 83.68 74.74 73.9 88.6 81.2 81.22 92.12 86.55

Source: Census of India, 2011, Series-1, Paper-2 of 2011, Final Population Totals, Registrar-General and Census Commissioner of India.

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Perspectives of Indian Women in 21st Century:

Indian women are in social transformation process during 21st century. The world

historians are of the view that any social transformation causes suffering to the members

of that social group. The table presents the Indian social system, the breaking up of

matrimonial relationships, domestic violence, increasing the family burden of work for

women, attending to both domestic work and employment which involves more working

hours, -are some of the social problems that cropped up in the social transformation of

India.

Table-1.5: Life Expectancy by Sex in India from 1901 to 2011

Year Range Expectat ion of Life a t Birth(Years)

Female Male 1901-10 23.3 22.6 1911-20 20.9 19.4

1921-30 26.6 26.9

1931-40 31.4 32.1 1941-50 31.7 32.4 1951-60 40.6 41.9

1961-70 44.7 46.4

1971-80 50 50.9

1981-85 56.4 55.6

1986-91 59.1 58.1

1991-95 61.7 60.6

1996-2000 62.63 60.65

2001-2005 64.72 62.08

2006-2011 68.33 66.08 Note: Figures for years up to 1970 are based on Census data.For1971-80 Life Expectancy on Sample

Registration System data. For years 1981-85 and1986—88 are based On 2006 Data. Source: 1. Life Table1961-71, Census of 2011, Registrar General of India.

2. Sample. Registration system, Registrar General of India.

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Increasing number of research studies 1 show that the core problems like poverty,

illiteracy, superstition, child-care etc., cannot be solved without the active participation

of women. The problems of women in India are not uniform. Eighty five per cent of

women live in rural areas. Their lives, livelihood and status are deeply affected by

policies relating to agriculture, water resources, forests, land distribution and utilization,

and employment resulting from agricultural, industrial, and technological policies. This

is especially true of poor rural women, particularly those belonging to the scheduled

castes and tribes. Women of artisan families2 in both rural and urban areas are equally

affected by other macro policies such as textiles, science and technology, commerce,

credit etc. The National Perspective Plan (NPP)3 for women 1988-2000, submitted to the

Government of India by the expert committee, evoked mixed response from women’s

organizations and others concerned in this. It has been recognized that a perspective plan

for women's development has to be related to the total perspective for national

development. If the two clash with each other, then no development takes place either for

women or for the nation as a whole.

Women empowerment movement in India is expected to reach the climax by

20504. Indian women in the 21st century will no doubt be more literate, have less burden

of child bearing and have better income. There is a danger from some of' the misguided

development strategies that adversely affect our natural and social environment of which

women are the major victims. This is reflected in the rapid rise of crimes of violence

against women-rape, murder, foeticide, dangerous drugs that are used to experiment on

women's bodies, communication systems that project women as parasitical consumers

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1 MSME Occasional papers, History matters in Self Help Groups- Small Enterprise Development, 14/2: 10-12, 2003.

2 Hemanthakhandai, 2001, The role of university in empowering women. University News,39(6) : 9-12. 3 Natikar, k. V., 2001, Empowerment of Women and Rural Development. A Study in Dharwad.Kurushetra 10-

11. 4 Pattanaik, b. K., 1997, Empowerment of Women and Rural Development. Yojana, 40(10) : 24-27.

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and glamorize their powerless and commodity status creating or strengthening distorted

values and attitudes that refuse to recognize women's rights as an essential aspect of

human rights.

Undoubtedly, women's development depends on the national socio-economic

development. Gender justice in the process of social and economic development could be

achieved by providing equal opportunities in the areas of education, employment, health,

nutrition, administration of law and political participation. Governments as well as

women’s organizations have to design policies for women's empowerment without

greatly affecting the institution of family, which is traditionally strong in the Indian

social system, which ensures security to all5. Thus social change with minimum suffering

should be the motto of all the women's empowerment programmes and policies.

Empowerment and Women Empowerment

In India, plans and policies as well as the constitution have laid stress on women

empowerment. According to a social scientist, empowerment means acquisition of

authority and power, taking independent decisions and assuming greater responsibilities

in various fields of activities. It is a process which generates changes in ideas and

perceptions and creates awareness about one’s rights and opportunities for self-

development in all important spheres of life6. It provides circumstances and

opportunities where people can make use of abilities and potentialities to the maximum

level in pursuance of some common objectives. Empowerment of women means creating

economic independence, self-reliance, political, social and legal awareness, self-

confidence and positive attitude among women.

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5 Reddy and Rao, 1995, Women Organization and Power Structure, Chugh Publications, Allahabad, India. 6 Sharada, a. H., 1997, Women, fertility and Empowerment: Some issues in the contemporary debate.

Samya Shakti, Centre for Women Development studies, New Delhi, 6 : 28-43.

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Empowerment is an active multidimensional process that enables women to realize

their full identity and powers in all spheres of life7. Power is neither a commodity to be

transacted, nor can it be given as alms. Power has to be acquired and once acquired it

needs to be exercised, sustained and preserved. Women have to empower themselves.

This means that they have to understand the causes of the existing inequality of women

in all sectors, economic, social, political, legal and educational and take the initiative to

change their status8. Empowerment can be viewed as a means of creating a social

environment in which one can take decisions and make choice either individually or

collectively for social transformation. It intensifies the innate ability by way of acquiring

knowledge, power and experience. Empowerment is a process, which helps people to

gain control of their lives through raising awareness, taking action and working in order

to exercise greater control. Empowerment is the feeling that activates the psychological

energy to accomplish one’s goals.

According to the ‘Country Report’ of the Government of India, “Empowerment

means moving from a position of enforced powerlessness to one of power. Women

Empowerment would promote women’s inherent strength and positive image”9. The

concept 'empowerment' is frequently used in general terms, often synonymous with a

multi-dimensional definition of poverty alleviation. The Government of India has been

spending considerable amount of money on women empowerment during every plan

period. Women empowerment is the thrust area of development today. Empowerment

can be defined as a process of awareness and capacity-building leading to greater

participation, to greater decision-making power and control, and to transformative

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7 Singh, o. R., 2001, Education and Women’s Empowerment. Social Welfare, Allhabad, Press,48(1) : 35-36.

8 Pillai j.k, Women and Empowerment, Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi, 1995, p. 21 9 Government of India, Country Report, Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing 1995, Department

of Women and Child Development, Ministry of Human Resources Development, 1995, p. 116

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action10. The work of Amartya Sen (1997) has also been influential in broadening

understanding of empowerment and deprivation. He argued that poverty led to denial of

rights and opportunities to the poor for full participation in society11.

The Report of the National Commission on self employed women and women in

the informal sector (June 1988), has observed that poor women have always been

exploited, especially in the rural areas, bearing the double burden of being women and

being poor. Both in rural and urban areas in India, it is well established that the poor

women have the least access to basic needs, such as food, health and education, both

within the family and outside. The National Perspective Plan for Women 1988-2000

(1988) which has made a free, frank, objective and masterly analysis of the impact of

development plans and programmes of Indian women, concludes “there is continued

inequality and vulnerability of women in all sectors – economic, social, political,

educational, healthcare, nutritional and legal”12.

The National Policy for the Empowerment of Women 2001 has been formulated

with the objective of bringing about advancement, development and empowerment of

women in all walks of life. Women’s participation in grassroot organizations is

increasingly recognized as crucial to their empowerment and as a way for them to help

shape development policies13. The Government of India and Andhra Pradesh have

started several programmes such as Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP),

Jowahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY), Sampoorna Gram Rozgar Yojana (SGRY), Support to

Training Employment Programme (STEP), Indira Kranthi Patham (IKP) – (Formerly

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10 "Oxford University's Famous South Asian Graduates- Indira Gandhi". BBc News. 5 May 2010. 11 Sen, Amartya, On Economic Inequality (Radclife Lectures), Oxford University Press, New York, June

1997. 12 . Pillai, J.B., Women and Empowerment, Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi, 1995. 13 . Karl, Marilee, Women and Empowerment, Participation and Decision Making, Zed Books, London, 1995.

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called as Velugu Project) etc. to promote the better livelihood and well-being of women

and achieve empowerment of women.

However, in spite of guarantees given in the preamble, fundamental rights, and

directive principles of our Constitution, relating to equality of opportunity and equality

before the law, and the programmes implemented to develop and empower women, still

a great number of them continue to be deprived and continue to be subjected to

exploitation.

There are many theoretical frameworks developed by different people to assess

the stage of women’s development and empowerment. The winner of Africa Prize

Laureate for 2003, Steinwand of Zambia developed the most widely used empowerment

framework in 2001. The United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) is using this

framework since 1993 throughout its programme planning process. Many development

agencies are gearing their programmes and projects these days using this empowerment

framework through capacity-building and strengthening women’s organizations and their

participation in women’s associations. Several other authors have used their framework

as a base, making necessary changes, depending upon the place and subject of their

studies. According to Sharada.A.H the core of women’s empowerment framework can

be viewed in terms of five levels, namely welfare, access, concentration, participation

and control14. This has been found applicable in the present study, where the poor

women are trying to improve their situation step by step and achieve the objective of

empowerment, through an enabling and empowering process, which is given below:

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14 Sharada, A. H., 1997, Women and Empowerment: Some issues in the contemporary debate. Samya Shakti, Centre for Women Development studies, New Delhi, 6 : 28-43

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1. Our Constitution, in its Fundamental Rights, has provisions for equality, social

justice and protection of women. These goals are yet to be realized. Women continue

to be discriminated, exploited and exposed to inequalities at various levels.

2. By empowerment women would be able to develop self-esteem and confidence,

realize their potential and enhance their collective bargaining power.

3. Women empowerment can be viewed as a contribution of several interrelated and

mutually reinforcing components.

4. Awareness-building about women’s situations, discrimination, rights and

opportunities will act as a step towards gender equality.

5. Capacity-building and skill-development, especially the ability to plan, make

decisions, organize, manage and execute, will enable women to deal with people and

institutions in the course of business.

6. Participation and greater control and decision-making power in the home, community

and society will develop leadership qualities.

7. Action is needed at all levels to bring about greater equality between men and

women.

Thus, empowerment is a process of awareness and capacity-building, leading to

greater participation, greater decision-making power and control of the transformative

action. The empowerment of women covers both individual and collective

transformation. It strengthens their innate ability through acquiring knowledge, power

and experience15.

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru said, “To awaken the people, it is women who must be

awakened; once she is on the move, the family moves, the village moves and the nation

moves”. The all-round development and harmonious growth of a nation would be

possible only when women are given their desired place and position in the society and

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15 . Balu, V., Developing Women Entrepreneurship through Self-Help Groups, SEDME Journal, Vol. 32, No. 2, June 2005, p. 51.

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are treated as equal partners of progress with men. The plans and programmes pertaining

to women are not charity but an investment in the country’s future with high rates of

return. Confinement and subjugation of women to routine household work, and denial of

productive skills and decision-making will do irreparable damage to the nation. It will

make the nation weak and insecure, encourage internal domination and exploitation by

caste, class and gender factors, external domination and exploitation. Empowerment of

Women contributes to social development 16. Economic progress in any country whether

developed or under-developed, could be achieved through social development. A

woman should get proper status in the society. Her role should not be confined to

routine household but she should be made an important constituent of the society, which

is called empowerment. It means, to let women live their own life in a way they think

appropriate on the basis of their conditions, family circumstances, qualities and

capabilities of which they themselves are the best judges. Demand for empowering is

not a demand for equality or superiority, it is the demand to let women realize their ‘own

true self’, which would not be denied to women on any basis whatsoever, anywhere, and

any time17.

All over the world, the movement for improving women’s status has always

emphasized education as the most significant instrument for social change. Education is

one means of generating confidence and countering diffidence. It alone helps women to

empower themselves. Education is the gateway to progress and prosperity of the nation.

The significant feature of Indian Education in ancient times was giving

importance to women’s education also. Women were given equal rights and freedom in

all walks of life including education. Women had the freedom to select their life partners. ��

16 Panwar, M., 1989, The State of Women in Rajasthan: A situational Review. Prashasnika, 19(1-4) : 69-76.

17. Muneer Sultana, Impact on Women Empowerment through SHGs: A Case Study of Vikarabad Mandal of Ranga Reddy District, Andhra Pradesh, SEDME Journal, Vol. 32, No.3 September 2005, p. 28.

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They also enjoyed the freedom to remain single and lead independent life. There are

number of instances of co-education in ashrams in ancient times. With the changed

conditions from time to time women lost their freedom to lead their own life due to

controls on marriage age, on the rights of equality and privilege of education.

During the middle ages women became completely illiterate and entirely

dependent on men - father, husband and son, economically, socially and culturally18.

Women’s Education in the olden days was more in the light of women’s rights for the

access to knowledge, recognizing it as a national economic asset. The social reformers of

the 19th century tried to use education more to ameliorate the position of women socially.

They awakened the consciousness of the nation to the evils of child marriage, sati,

polygamy, dowry system, enforced widowhood etc. The position of girls is worse in

vocational, professional and other special schools at the secondary levels19. Girls go in

only for courses suited for women such as nursing, teacher training; home science, music

etc. Formerly, very few girls enrolled in technical courses leading to industry. It is

realized that education for national development should include education for self-

reliance, personal development, social development, productive capacity, social

integration, and political understanding.

Approaches to the Study of Women Empowerment:

Broadly, there are three major approaches to the study of empowerment of

women. First approach views women’s development as a key to the advancement of

family and community. It therefore, provides a package of interventions by development

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18 Puhazhendi, V. and Jayaraman, b., 1999, Increasing women’s participation and employment generation among rural poor – An approach through informal Groups. National Bank News Reviews, 15(4) : 55-62.

� �Hemalatha Prasad, 1995, Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas: Successful case studies.

Journal of Rural Development, 14(1): 85-87.�

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agencies to alleviate poverty, reduce discrimination and help women gain self-esteem.

This approach proceeds by forming women’s collectives that engage in development

activities to tackle social problems. Women collectively protesting against dowry, child

marriage and male alcoholism are some of examples.

The second approach to empowerment of women is that it requires awareness of

empowerment strategies. This approach aims at organizing women into collectives to

tackle the sources of their subordination. This approach is known as the conscious

raising approach20.

The third approach is widely used as the economic empowerment approach to

Women’s Empowerment. This approach attributes Women’s subordination to lack of

economic power. Organizing women around savings and credit, and skill-training

activities form groups for income-generation. The focus of this approach is on the

promotion of self-employment through micro-credit. The examples of this approach are

Grameen Bank, SHGs of Bangladesh, Programme of Rural Credit of Nepal, SEWA in

India and SHGs promoted for economic betterment under different poverty alleviation

programmes such as Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA)

and Swarnajayanti Grameen Swarozgar Yojona (SGSY)21.

The above said three approaches are for the programme of formulation and

implementation. Again all these methods emphasize group formation to build solidarity

among women. Empowerment implies expansion of assets and capabilities of people to

influence control and hold accountable institution that affects their lives (World Bank

Resource Book). Empowerment is the process of enabling or authorizing an individual to

think, behave, take action and control work in an autonomous way. It is the state of the

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20 Manjula, S., 1995, A study on entrepreneurial behavior of rural women in Ranga Reddy district of Andhra Pradesh. M. Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Hyderabad.

21 Sundaram, P. and Singh, S., 1995, Assessment of DWCRA programme on modalities of operation. Kurukshetra, 43(3) : 96-99.

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feelings of self-empowered to take control of one’s own destiny. It includes both control

over resources (Physical, Human, Intellectual and Financial) and over ideology, belief,

values and attitudes22.

“Empowerment comes from Women’s groups who seek to empower themselves

through greater self-reliance. They have the right to determine their own choices in life.

They also seek to gain control and access to resources”. It is observed that there are five

means of empowerment, namely, political empowerment, legal empowerment, social

empowerment, cultural empowerment and economic empowerment. Among the five

means, it is felt that economic empowerment will automatically lead to other

empowerments.

“Freedom depends on economic conditions even more than political. If a woman

is not economically free and self-earning, she has to depend on her husband or son or

father or someone-else and dependents are never free” said India’s first Prime Minister,

Pandit Jawaharalal Nehru.

Empowering of women pre-supposes23 a drastic, dynamic and democratic

change in the perception of and expectation from women in our society. To help woman

to attain economic independence is the first priority for such a change. When a woman

attains economic independence she naturally becomes the mistress of her own body and

author of her own decisions. A scientific perception of women’s needs is essential for

the process, which leads to empowering.

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22. Bibhudatta Pradhan (19 July 2007). "Patil Poised to Become India's First Female President". Bloomberg.com. 20 July 2007.�

23 Seibel, H. D., 1984: Ansatzmöglichkeiten für die Mobilisierung von Sparkapital... In Nigeria. Forschungsberichte des BMZ vol. 63. Munich/Cologne/London, Weltforum Verlag - 1985:

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Soviet President in his welcome address to the World Congress of Women at

Moscow in June 1987 said, “The status of Women is a Barometer of the Democratism of

any State, an indicator of how human rights are respected in it24”.

As women are oppressed in all spheres of life they need to be empowered in all

walks of life. There cannot be a piecemeal approach to Women’s Empowerment25.

Hence all aspects of society have to be restructured. The Indian constitution has

guaranteed “equal rights and equal opportunities to all its citizens, irrespective of gender,

age, race or religion”. The rights are guaranteed by law, but yet to be legalized in

custom.

Economic empowerment is one of the means to empower women. Enhancing

women’s economic productivity is an important strategy for improving the welfare of

sixty million Indian households living below the poverty line26. The existence of women

in a state of economic, political, social and knowledge disempowerment is known to be a

major hindrance to economic development. The position of women in any society has

been the subject of many inexpert opinions and guesses and has often been

misrepresented by stereotyped portrayal. A more balanced and scientific way to assess

women’s position has been given in Anthropology. “Status of women in any society

depends on her recognized rights, duties, liberties and opportunities – chiefly in the

domestic, economic, social, political and religious spheres”. Since majority of women

are below the poverty line, and given the harsh realities of intra-household and social

discrimination, macroeconomic policies and poverty eradication programmes will

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��Mishra, R. C. (2006). Towards Gender Equality. Authorspress. ISBN 81-7273-306-2.�

25 Tejaswini, a. and Veerabhadraiah, s., 1996, Knowledge assessment of rural women on DWCRA and their problems. Kurukshetra, 51(4) : 46-47.

26 Dwarakanath, h. D., 1999, DWCRA in Andhra Pradesh.Kurukshetra, 47(12): 14-18.

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specifically address the needs and problems of such women27. There will be improved

implementation of programmes, which are already women-oriented with special targets

for women.

Empowerment of rural women through income generating activities is considered

as those initiatives that affect the economic aspects of people’s lives through the use of

economic tools such as credit. It is being increasingly realized that women’s income in a

family is very important in relation to the nutritional, economic and educational up-

liftment of the family.

Economic independence or access to an inherited or self-generated income is

considered as the major means of empowerment of women, to a great extent this is true

as economic dependence is the worst form of dependence. To enable women to stand on

their own legs, this strategy is attempted and advocated by many governments in the

third world28.

Women’s income in a family is very important in relation to their full identity

and powers in all spheres of life. However, as in the case of education, economic

independence also may not give women the necessary decision-making power and may

not even make access to forums of decision-making easy or smooth for them. The

prevailing value system has put so many hurdles on the path of women’s equality

through economic empowerment even though the role of the economic factor cannot be

minimized. The SHG provides an appropriate platform for initiating and sustaining

income generating activities29.

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27 Strickland, C. F., 1934: Report on the Introduction of Cooperative Societies into Nigeria. Lagos, Government Printer

28 Nambiar.M.J. Evaluation of Self Help Groups. Small Enterprise Development, Unpublished thesis, submitted to Cochin University, 10-12, 2003.

29 Hardikar, D. P., 1998, Perception of development programmes and benefits derived by women beneficiaries of Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra. Ph. D. Thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad.

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Since women’s empowerment is the key to socio-economic development of the

community; bringing women into the mainstream of national development has been a

major concern of government30. The Ministry of Rural Development has special

components for women in its programmes. Funds are earmarked as “Women’s

component” to ensure flow of adequate resources for the same. Besides SGSY, Ministry

of Rural Development is implementing other schemes having women’s component .They

are Indira Awas Yojona (IAJ), National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP),

Restructured Rural Sanitation Programme, Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme

(ARWSP) Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), Development of Women

and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) and Jowahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY).

The Government attempted to help the poor by implementing different poverty

alleviation programmes but with little success31. Most of them are target-based involving

lengthy procedures for loan disbursement, high transaction costs, and lack of supervision

and monitoring. Since the credit requirements of the rural poor cannot be adopted on

project lending approach as it is in the case of organized sector, there emerged the need

for an informal credit supply through SHGs32. The rural poor with the assistance from

NGOs have demonstrated their potential for self help to secure economic and financial

strength. Various case studies show that there is a positive correlation between credit

availability and women’s empowerment.

Women Empowerment Programmes in Andhra Pradesh:

In India, Andhra Pradesh State first realized the importance of women

empowerment. It has initiated many women empowerment programmes such as equal

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30 Dahama, O. P. and Bhatnagar, O. P., 1980, Educational and Communication for development, Oxford and IBH Publishing House, Bombay.

31 Gayathridevi, S. P., 2000, Impact of selected rural development programmes on Self-Employment of rural women. M. Sc. (rh. Sc.) Thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad.

32 Hemalathaprasad, 1995, Development of women and children in rural areas: Successful case studies. Journal of Rural Development, 14(1) : 85-87.

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property rights for women, reservation in jobs and educational institutions as well as

political reservations in local Self- Governments. Many central schemes for upliftment of

women and women’s welfare have been successfully implemented by the Government of

Andhra Pradesh. For example, Andhra Pradesh is adjudged as the first State in the

country in implementing DWCRA Programme in terms of mobilising women for social,

political and economic development of the poorest of the poor families in rural areas.

With the World Bank funding, the then Government renamed the programme as

“Velugu” and the subsequent Government changed it to Indira Kranti Patham (IKP). All

these programmes have been implemented by an independent society called Society for

Elimination of Rural Poverty (SERP) which functions under the Ministry of Rural

Development33. As on October 2009, in twenty two rural districts of Andhra Pradesh

there are 1,06,60,968 members in 9,33,585 SHGs exclusively for women. A total of

36,391 Village Organisations (VOs), 1099 Mandal Samakhyas (MSs) and twenty two

Zilla Samakhyas (ZSs) have come into existence. The total Savings and Corpus of SHG

members are Rs 2552.05 crores and Rs.4411.05 crores respectively. During the financial

year 2008-09, Rs. 7203.53 crores (up to March, 2009) of Bank loans are given under

Bank Linkages Programme. Under Pavala Vaddi, incentive of Rs 411.30 crores is given

to SHG members since inception of the scheme.

To have a considerable impact on economic conditions of rural poor, larger flow

of credit support to various economic activities in the rural areas should be ensured. It is

towards this objective the SHG-Bank Linkage Programme need to be taken forward.

These groups have to graduate into promoting micro-enterprises. Though micro-

enterprises are not a panacea for the complex problems of chronic unemployment and

poverty, promoting micro-enterprises is a viable and effective strategy for achieving

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��Joseph, 1998, Economic empowerment of women: A case study of Preshtiha service society, pollachi.

In: Empowerment of Women (Ed. Shanty), Anmol Publications, New Delhi, pp. 220.

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significant gains in income and assets for poor and marginalized people especially rural

women.

Women Empowerment thorough SHGs

SHGs differ in approaches but their objectives are towards the empowerment.

Women empowerment represents economic independence, self reliance, self confidence,

and leadership recognition etc. Women empowerment in right sense is made possible

through SHG movement in India. Its formation has helped women empowerment. The

microfinance activities are the mercantile activities in building women empowerment.

Empowered women contribute to empower the family and this leads to increase in the

economic level of the country. Today Women SHGs are the major players in country’s

economy.

In India SHGs are the voluntary organizations formed to disburse micro-credit to

the members. These are promoted by the NGOs, Banks and other micro finance

institutions. In India National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)

launched a pilot programme for lending to SHGs. RBI advised commercial banks to

participate in SHG Bank Linkage Programme. Over a period of time, some of the

Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) and Cooperative Banks in the State have developed the

skill in promoting SHGs on their own and assumed the mantle of Self-Help Promoting

Institutions (SHPIs).

The major benefits would be:

o Social empowerment and mobilization through better organization.

o Improved skills to enhance the abilities of the target communities to under take

productive investment and increases earning opportunities.

o Greater access to productive assets, infrastructure, and social services.

o Social protection to those who are vulnerable to natural and health related risks.

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o Empowerment of one of the most vulnerable sections among the poor, viz. people

with disabilities to live with dignity.

o Improved access to secondary education for girls from poor households,

especially the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and backward classes.

chapter – i women empowerment in...

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