Chapter 9 Learning

Section 1 – Classical Conditioning

• Describe the principles of classical conditioning

• Outline the techniques of classical conditioning.

Learning:

• Can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience

• Three basic types of learning;– classical conditioning– operant condition– modeling

Classical Conditioning

• Controlling an animal or person’s responses in a way so that an old response becomes attached to new stimulus

Classical Conditioning

• Neutral Stimulus:– one that has nothing to do with the response

prior to conditioning

• Un-conditioned Stimulus (UCS)– an event that leads to a certain predictable

response without previous training (ex. Food normally causes salivation)

Cont.

• Un-conditioned response (UCR)– a reaction that occurs naturally and

automatically when the UCS is presented

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)– A stimuli you are taught to respond to

• Conditioned response (CR)– a response that is learned

Pavlov’s ExperimentBefore Conditioning

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

No Response

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Pavlov’s ExperimentDuring Conditioning

Neutral Stimulus + Unconditioned Stimulus --- Unconditioned Response

Pavlov’s ExperimentAfter Conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus ( CS) = Conditioned Response (CR)

General Principles of Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition: – Generally occurs gradually– With each pairing of the CS and the UCS, the CR is strengthened.– The timing of the CS and the UCS also affects learning

• Generalization– Occurs when an animal responds to a second stimulus similar to

the original CS without prior training to the second stimulus.• Discrimination

– The ability to respond differently to different stimuli.• Extinction

– A classically conditioned response can be distinguish (ended)

Classical Conditioning and Human Behavior

• John B. Watson and Rosalie Raynor (1920) experimented with Little Albert (page 249 of textbook)

• O. Hobart and Mollie Mower (1938) developed a practical solution to the problem of bed-wetting using classical conditioning.

Classical Conditioning

• Did you know?– Have you ever noticed how

movie directors use music in their movies? Did you ever hear a song and then think about either the movie it was from or the person you were with when you saw the movie? If so, you experienced classical conditioning. The music has become a signal that triggers memories and emotions.

Section 2- Operant Conditioning

• Outline the principles of operant conditioning

• Describe the applications of operant conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

• Learning from the consequences of behavior– In operant conditioning, the subject must

engage in a behavior in order for the programmed outcome to occur

Operant Conditioning

• B. F. Skinner is most closely associated with operant conditioning

• believes that most behaviors are influenced by one’s history of rewards and punishments– Reinforcement: a stimulus or event that affects

the likelihood that an immediately preceding behavior will be repeated.

Reinforcement

• A stimulus or event that increases the likelihood that behavior will be repeated– Examples of reinforcers that people usually

respond to are social approval, money and extra privileges.

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

• A primary reinforcer is one that satisfies a biological need such as hunger, thirst or sleep.

• A secondary reinforcer is one that has been paired with a primary reinforcer and through classical conditioning has acquired value and reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement• One important factor in operant conditioning is the timing and

frequency of reinforcement– Continuous Schedule: reinforced every time– Partial Schedule: reinforcement occurs intermittently

• Within partial schedule there are four basic schedules where people respond differently to each

• Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement depends on a specified quantity of responses (ex: every 4th response)

• variable-ration schedule: the number of responses needed for a reinforcement changes from one time to the next (ex: slot machine)

• fixed-interval schedule: the time interval is always the same: (second, minutes, days)

• variable-interval schedule: the time at which the reinforcement becomes available changes throughout the conditioning procedure

Shaping and Chaining

• Shaping is a process in which reinforcement is used to sculpt new responses out of old ones.

• In order to learn a new skill, a person must be able to put together responses.

• Responses that follow one another in a sequence are called response chains.

Aversive Control

• Reinforcement refers to anything that increases the frequency of an immediately preceding behavior.– Aversive, or unpleasant stimuli, influence our

everyday behavior– Aversive control refers to this type of

conditioning or learning.

Aversive Control

• Negative Reinforcement– In negative reinforcement, a negative or unpleasant

stimulus is removed.

– This removal increases the frequency of behavior

– It negates, (takes away) and aversive stimuli

– Two types of negative reinforcement is escape conditioning and avoidance conditioning.

• Escape conditioning – a person’s behavior causes an unpleasant event to stop.

• Avoidance conditioning – the person’s behavior has the effect of preventing an unpleasant situation from happening.

Factors that Affect Learning• Feedback: finding out the results of an action or

performance– w/o feedback, you may repeat the same mistakes

• Transfer: skills you already have that can be used for another skill– positive transfer: when a previously learned response

helps you learn to master a new task– negative transfer: when a previously learned task

hinders learning (ex: driving in England)

Factors that affect learning (cont)• Practice: the repetition of a task

– helps to bind responses together– makes for smooth and fluent movement from

response to response– psychologists have been interested in

determining how to use time most efficiently and have found that it is usually better to practice over a period of time instead of all at once

– imagining oneself performing the skill is called “mental practice”

Operant Conditioning

Section 3 – Social Learning

Objectives:Cite the principles involved in cognitive learning

and modeling.Identify the principles of learning used in behavior

modification.

Cognitive Learning

Learning to Learn

• Harry Harlow showed that animals can learn to learn- they can learn to use strategies for solving similar problems

• page 38 read

• Martin Seligman: Learned Helplessness

• Pg 39 read

Modeling

• Learning by imitation– Three different types of effects

• the behaviors of others simply increases the chances that we will do the same

• observational learning, or simply imitation; observer watches someone perform a behavior and is later able to reproduce it closely

• dis-inhibition: when an observer watches someone else engage in threatening activity without being punished, the observer may find it easier to engage in that behavior

Modeling

Behavior Modification

Behavior Modification