chapter 9 dna and the molecular structure of chromosomes © john wiley & sons, inc
TRANSCRIPT
Chapter 9
DNA and the Molecular Structure of Chromosomes
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Chapter Outline
Functions of the Genetic MaterialProof That Genetic Information Is
Stored in DNAThe Structures of DNA and RNAChromosome Structure in Prokaryotes
and VirusesChromosome Structure in Eukaryotes
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Functions of the Genetic MaterialThe genetic material must
replicate, control the growth and development of the organism,
and allow the organism to adapt to changes in the environment.
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Genotypic Function: ReplicationPhenotypic Function: Gene ExpressionEvolutionary Function: Mutation (Gene
modifications)
Chromosomes
Genes are located on chromosomes.
Chromosomes contain proteins and nucleic acids.
The nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
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Proof that Genetic Information is Stored in DNA
In most organisms, the genetic information is encoded in DNA. In some viruses, RNA Is the genetic
material. Proteins?
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Chromosomes-nuclear fraction-DNA
Cytosol-proteins-RNA
DNA Mediates Transformation
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Griffith’s experiment (in vivo) MiceStreptococcus pneumoniae--type IIIS (virulent)--type IIR (avirulent)
“Transforming principles”
Sia and Dawson’s experiment (in vitro)
DNA Mediates Transformation
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Griffith’s experiment (in vivo) MiceStreptococcus pneumoniae--type IIIS (virulent)--type IIR (avirulent)
“Transforming principles”
Sia and Dawson’s experiment (in vitro)
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Avery, MacLeod and McCarty’s experiment (in vitro)
The Genetic Material of Bacteriophage T2 is DNA
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Hesley-Chase’s experiment (in vitro)-----------> Transfection ( Infection)
The Genetic Material of Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) is RNA
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Retroviruses ( RNA------> DNA)
(in vitro)
• The genetic information of most living organisms is stored in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
• In some viruses, the genetic information is present in ribonucleic acid (RNA).
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The Structures of DNA and RNA
DNA is double-stranded,
with adenine paired with thymine and guanine paired with cytosine.
RNA is usually single-stranded and contains uracil in place of
thymine.
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Deoxyribonucleotides
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Structure of a Polynucleotide Chain
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DNA composition: [A]=[T] ; [C]=[G]
Chargaff’s Rules
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%A = %T and %G = %C.
%A ~ %T and %G ~ %C are valid for each of the two DNA strands
methyltransferases methylate and/or deaminate
Structure of a Polynucleotide Chain
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DNA composition: [A]=[T] ; [C]=[G]
X-ray Diffraction Pattern of DNA
The Double Helix
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Phosphodiester [C-O-P-O-C]
Polynucleotide chain
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Complementary and Antiparallel
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DNA Structure
Complementary Base Pairs (A with T, G with C)
Anti-parallel StrandsRight-handed double helix (B-DNA)
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DNA replication DNA-RNA duplexesElevated content of C:G
DNA Structure: Supercoils
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Unique structure of a DNA molecule
Is produced after one or both strand of DNA are cleaved
DNA will rotate or twist
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• DNA usually exists as a double helix, with the two strands held together by hydrogen bonds between the complementary base pairs: adenine paired with thymine and guanine paired with cytosine.
• The complementarity of the two strands of a double helix makes DNA uniquely suited to store and transmit genetic information.
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• The two strands of a DNA double helix have opposite chemical polarity.
• RNA usually exists as a single-stranded molecule containing uracil instead of thymine.
• The functional DNA molecules in cells are negatively supercoiled.
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Chromosome Structure in Prokaryotes and Viruses
The DNA molecules of prokaryotes and viruses (RNA?) are organized into negatively
supercoiled domains.
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Prokaryotes are monoploid and are part of the nucleoids.
Most viruses and prokaryotes have a single set of genes stored in a single chromosome, which contains a single molecule of nucleic acid.
The E. coli Chromosome
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Folded genome: is the functional state of a isolated bacterial chromosome
Mild conditions(no ionic detergents)
1M salt Polyamines(-)
Model of E. coli Chromosome
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folded=coiled
protein
Nicked=single strand
• The DNA molecules in prokaryotic and viral chromosomes are organized into negatively supercoiled domains (loops).
• Bacterial chromosomes contain circular molecules of DNA segregated into 50 to 100 domains.
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Chromosome Structure in EukaryotesEukaryotic chromosomes contain huge molecules of DNA that are highly condensed during mitosis and meiosis.
The centromeres and telomeres of eukaryotic chromosomes have unique structures.
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Each chromosome is unineme (Theory)
Each chromosome contains a single large double
helix (strand) of DNA molecule
Chromatin Composition
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(+)
(-)
Histones:H1, H2a, H2b, H3, H4
(protamines in sperm)
Structural
Nonhistone proteins:Non structuralRegulation
Nucleosomes: DNA + histonesexcept H1
Nucleosomes
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Methyl groups Acetyl groups
Structure of the Nucleosome Core
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Human Metaphase Chromosomes
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The 30 nm Fiber
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Micrococcal nuclease releases individual nucleosomes from chromatin as particles.
Endonucleases
IntermediateStructures?
Both the 10 nm fiber and
the 30 nm fiber were first seen by electron microscopy.
Higher packing of the
nucleosomes into “inactive
heterochromatin” may involve
Non-histone proteins.
The path of nucleosomes in the chromatin fiber
High saltsH1
DNA Around a Scaffold of Non-histone Proteins
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heterochromatin
Levels of DNA Packaging
2-nm double-stranded DNA molecule 11-nm nucleosomes 30 nm chromatin fiber Organization around a central scaffold
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H1
DNA repeats
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Centromeric: specific repeated regions (non-coding DNA sequences=heterochromatin) of chromosome for attachment of spindle microtubules ( 5000 to 15000 bp).
Satellite sequences:--Tandemly repeating --Non-coding DNA
Alpha-------171 ( unit repeat as base pair)Beta----------68Satellite 1---48Satellite 2-----5Satellite 3-----5
Most satellite DNA is localized to the telomeric or the centromeric region of the chromosome
TelomeresFunctions of telomeres
– Protect the ends of linear DNA molecules from deoxyribonucleases
– Prevent fusion of chromosomes– Facilitate complete replication of the ends of
linear DNA molecules
Most telomeres contain repetitive sequences and a distinct structure.
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Telomere Structure
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-TTAGGG
-500 to 3000 repeats
-G-rich overhang
-T-loop (D-loop)
-Telomeres specificProteins ( protection)
POT1
TRF1 and 2
TIN2 and TPP1
Repeated DNA Sequences
Eukaryotic chromosomes contain repetitive DNA ( 15 to 80 %), Human (~50%)
--Satellite bands (tandem repeats)
--Transposable genetic elements (transposon)
---Retrotransposon, ---DNA transposon
--Genomic island (G+C)
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The heritable factors that Mendel studied are now known as:
a) Nucleic acidsb) Amino acidsc) Genesd) Unit factorse) Peptides
Different forms of the same gene are known as:
a) Peptidesb) Amino acidsc) Proteinsd) Allelese) Gene differences
The building blocks of genes are:
a) Proteinsb) Amino acidsc) Nucleic acidsd) Lipidse) Carbohydrates
The main components of a membrane in a cell are:
a) Lipidsb) Proteinsc) Carbohydratesd) Lipids and Proteinse) Lipids and Carbohydrates
Prokaryotes can be characterized by:1.The lack of a true nucleus or compartment in which the DNA is located2. The unique cell walls composed of murein3. The lack of mitochondria4. All of these
a) 1b) 2c) 3d) 4e) 1 and 3
Which large organic molecules are essential chromosome components?
a) Lipids and proteinsb) Proteins and nucleic acidsc) Nucleic acids and polysaccharidesd) Proteins and polysaccharides
Which of the following is a type of nucleic acid?
a) DNAb) RNAc) DNAsed) RNAsee) DNA and RNA
In Sia and Dawson's 1931 experiment:a) Mice were required to demonstrate the transforming principleb) Used serum to precipitate IIIS cells from a mixture of heat-killed IIIS and living IIR cellsc) They showed that mice play no direct role in the transforming principled) Heat-killed IIR cells mixed with living IIIS cells gave rise to IIR coloniese) None of these