chapter 8 transportation, energy and the environment

THE GEOGRAPHY OF TRANSPORT

SYSTEMSFOURTH EDITION

Copyright © 1998-2016, Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Global Studies & Geography, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY, 11549 [email protected] may use the figures within for educational purposes only. No modification or redistribution permitted.For more information: http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans

Chapter 8 – Transport, Energy and EnvironmentCONCEPTS

http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans

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Copyright © 1998-2016, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Global Studies & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use.



THE GEOGRAPHY OF

TRANSPORT SYSTEMSFOURTH EDITION

Concept 1

Environmental Impacts of Transportation


The Paradox of Mobility and its Costs

MobilityGrowing Demand

Motorization

Energy (Petroleum)

CostsInternal Costs

(Users)External Costs

(Society)Environmental

ImpactsCopyright © 1998-2016, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Global Studies & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use.

Paradox

Environmental Costs Hierarchy

Cost Type ImplicationsInternal Material, labor, other expenses, and revenues that are

commonly allocated to a product or process.Can easily be quantified (internalized).

Compliance Expenses incurred by and benefits to the firm that are not related to products or processes.Mostly concern compliance to regulations.

Contingent Potential liability or benefit that depends on the occurrence of a future event.Assessed as a risk.

Image / Relationship

Costs/benefits related to the subjective perceptions of a firm’s stakeholders.

External Costs/benefits of a company’s impacts upon the environment and society that do not directly accrue to the business.Difficult to quantify (externalized).


The Environmental System


Ecosphere

Biosphere

The Environmental Impacts of Transportation


4. ECOSPHERE

4.1 AQUATIC ECOSPHEREAlteration of ecosystems in unforeseeable ways.Disappearance of vulnerable species and proliferation of tolerant ones.Reduction of bacterial treatment of organic matter by nitrification.Reduction of available nutrients to aquatic species.Reproductive impediments.4.2 LAND ECOSPHEREDamages over the vegetation modifying:

hydric cycles.the level of underground water resources.soil erosion.air purification capacity of the ecosphere.food sources (agriculture).entertainment and tourism.

Reduction of the vital space.Reduction of the genetic potential of species.Reduction of the food supply and alteration of the food chain.Consumption of resources.4.3 HUMAN ECOSPHEREOdors.Noise.Cardiovascular and respiratory problems.Susceptibility to infection.Drops in life expectancy.Injuries, incapacity, hospitalization, death.Damage to structures:

loss of useful life. (amortization)loss of property values.corrosion of metal structures (bronze, steel, etc.).destruction of historical and cultural monuments.

1. ATMOSPHERELarge scale diffusion of pollutants.High growth on a short term basis of the concentration of pollutants because of local conditions (e.g. smog).Photochemical reactions caused by ultraviolet rays, notably over ozone, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.Climatic changes (global warming).Acid rain.Synergetic effects when pollutants are combined (e.g. smog and greenhouse gases).

2. HYDROSPHEREDiffusion of pollutants in a dissolved or colloidal state.Acidification and loss of neutralizing potential of ground and underground water.Drops of pH following snow melting (aquatic organism are particularly vulnerable).Growth in the solubility of several metals because of acidification.Additions of organic compounds, aluminum, manganese, calcium, magnesium and potassium by runoffs.Contamination of ground and underground water by nitrates.

3. LITHOSPHEREAcid depositions.Liberation of toxic metallic ions (aluminum, cadmium, etc.) through acidification.Loss of nutrients, notably calcium and magnesium.Inhibition of the miniralization of nitrogen.Modifications in the compositions and the depth of decomposition gradient.Inhibition of decomposition.Loss of the soil flora and fauna.Fixation by plants of heavy metals (e.g. lead) and contamination.Removal and consumption of land.Extraction of raw materials like mineral products and energy.

Estimated Automobile Costs, 2005

32%

24%

44%External costInternal fixed costsInternal variable costs


Environmental Dimensions of Transportation


Causes Activities Outputs End Results

Land Use

Economics

OtherInfrastructure

construction

and maintenanc

e

Vehicle and parts

manufacture

Travel

Vehiclemaintenanc

e andsupport

Disposal ofvehicles

and parts

Habitat changes

Emissions

Ambient levels

Exposure

Social or

ecological

effects

Health, environmental

or welfare effects

Transportation Activities Affecting the Environment


Activity Mode Traffic

Infrastructure

Vehicle manufacture

Vehicle operation

Vehicle maintenance

Vehicle disposal / recycling

Road

Rail

Maritime

Air

Passengers

FreightPo

rtAi

rpor

tSt

atio

n /

yard

Transportation Systems and the Environment


Localized emissionsEnergy efficient

Diffused emissionsHigh energy use

Point source of emissionsLevel of emissionsLevel of energy consumption

Nature of emissionsNature of energy consumption

Diffused NetworkCentralized Network

Traffic

Mode

Spatial and Durational Environmental Effects


Space

Duration

Noise

LeadParticulates

NOX

CO2

Local Regional Global

World CO2 Emission by Economic Sector, 2011

42%

21%

22%

6%

9%

Electricity and heat productionManufacturing and ConstructionTransportResidentalOther


Major Oil Spills Since 1967

Ship name Year Location Spill Size (tons)Atlantic Empress 1979 Off Tobago, West Indies 287,000ABT Summer 1991 700 nautical miles off Angola 260,000Castillo de Bellver 1983 Off Saldanha Bay, South Africa 252,000Amoco Cadiz 1978 Off Brittany, France 223,000Haven 1991 Genoa, Italy 144,000Odyssey 1988 700 nautical miles off Nova Scotia, Canada 132,000Torrey Canyon 1967 Scilly Isles, UK 119,000Sea Star 1972 Gulf of Oman 115,000Irenes Serenade 1980 Navarino Bay, Greece 100,000Urquiola 1976 La Coruna, Spain 100,000Hawaiian Patriot 1977 300 nautical miles off Honolulu 95,000Independenta 1979 Bosporus, Turkey 95,000Jakob Maersk 1975 Oporto, Portugal 88,000Braer 1993 Shetland Islands, UK 85,000

Khark 5 1989120 nautical miles off Atlantic coast of Morocco 80,000

Aegean Sea 1992 La Coruna, Spain 74,000Sea Empress 1996 Milford Haven, UK 72,000Katina P 1992 Off Maputo, Mozambique 72,000Nova 1985 Off Kharg Island, Gulf of Iran 70,000Prestige 2002 Off Galicia, Spain 63,000Exxon Valdez 1989 Prince William Sound, Alaska, USA 37,000


The Carbon Cycle


The Concept of Externalities


Level of intervention

Optimal cost

Intervention costs

Total costs

Externalities

LL(O)0 L1

C(L1)

C(O)

C(E)

E(L1)

ΔE(L1)

ΔC(L1)

Emissions from Freight Modes (gram / ton-km)

Road

Rail

Short sea shipping

Ocean shipping

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

CO2SO2NOxPM

Other Emissions (g/ton-km)

Carbon Dioxide (g/ton-km)


Estimated Air Pollutants Emitted by Highway Transportation in the United States, 1970-2014

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

140,000

160,000

180,000

200,000

Particulate (PM-10)VOCNOxCO

Thou

sand

tons


Distance Driven and Carbon Emissions, U.S. Automobile Fleet, 1970-2000

1970

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

Carbon Emissions Distance Driven

Milli

on m

etric

tons

Trilli

on K

M


Noise Levels (in decibels)


120

100

0

20304050

607080

90

110

Desert10Broadcasting studio

Quiet room

Light traffic

Busy street through open windowsNoise level near a motorway

Busy crossroads

Lorry, motorcycle, underground trainPneumatic drill at 1 meter

Aircraft at take offdB (A)

Earing threshold

Hazmat Accidents in the United States, 1975-2005

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 20050

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

Total Accidents Property Damage (1,000s of $)Polynomial (Property Damage (1,000s of $))


THE GEOGRAPHY OF


Concept 2

Transportation and Energy


Sources of Energy


Chemical• Fossil fuels

(Combustion)Nuclear• Uranium (Fission of

atoms)Energy

Non-Renewable

Renewable

Chemical• Muscular

(Oxidization)Nuclear• Geothermal

(Conversion)• Fusion (Fusion of

hydrogen)Gravity• Tidal, hydraulic

(Kinetic)Indirect Solar• Biomass

(Photosynthesis)• Wind (Air pressure

differences)Direct Solar• Photovoltaic cell

(Conversion)• Solar thermal

(Conversion)

Chemical Energy Content of some Fuels (in MJ/kg)

HydrogenMethane

LNGPropane

Natural GasKerosene

Gasoline (Automobile)

DieselJet A-1

Crude OilBunker C

Coal (An-

thracite)

Methanol

Coal (Bitu-minous)

EthanolWood

Lithium Battery

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100142.055.555.050.347.246.345.845.343.341.940.031.431.123.919.917.10.5


Fuels Production Processes

Fuel Sources ProcessLiquid petroleum fuels (gasoline, diesel, kerosene, jet fuel, bunker fuel)

Conventional oil fields (ground and shore-based). Non-conventional sources (tar sands)

Refining

Liquid synthetic fuels Natural gas, coal GasificationBiodiesel Oil seed crops Esterification,

hydrogenationEthanol Grain crops Saccharification and

distillationSugar crops (cane) Distillation

Advanced biodiesel Biomass from crops or waste products

Gasification

Compressed natural gas (CNG)

Natural gas Gasification

Electricity Coal, gas, petroleum, nuclear, renewables (hydro, wind)

Electric generator (source dependent)

Hydrogen Natural gas Reforming, compressionElectricity ElectrolysisDirect production using other sources

High temperature process


Energy Sources Used for Transportation

• Muscular• Wind• Gravity• Fossil fuels• Electricity• Biofuels

• Engine• ICE• Steam engine / turbine• Electric motor• Fuel cells


Alternative Sources of Energy for Transportation

Source Advantages DrawbacksBiodiesel Renewable; biodegradable;

domestically produced; improvedlubricity in engine; reduced airpollutant emissions.

May congeal at low temperatures; may damage engine components; lower fuel economy; non- renewable fuels are used in production; limited availability; may increase nitrous oxide emissions.

Ethanol Renewable; domestically produced; may reduce harmful air pollutants.

Non-renewable fossil fuels are used in its production; slightly decreases fuel economy.

Natural gas / propane

Reduced air pollutant emissions.

Non-renewable fossil fuel; reduced driving range; limited availability; larger fuel tanks.

Electricity Zero tailpipe emissions; widely available.

High vehicle and battery costs; limited range and performance; electricity production mainly from non-renewable sources.

Hybrid electric

Increased fuel economy and reduced pollution; good range and performance

Primarily fueled with non-renewable fossil fuels.

Synthetic fuels

Abundant supply exists. Significant environmental damages from extraction and processing; high carbon emissions; high production costs.

Hydrogen Zero tailpipe emissions. Potential use of fossil fuels to produce; high cost of vehicle.


Annual Energy Consumption in England and Wales, 1560s to 1850s (MJ)

1561-70 1600-9 1650-9 1700-9 1750-9 1800-9 1850-90%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

CoalWaterWindFirewoodDraught animalsHuman


Power Generated by Steam Machines, Europe, 1840-1888

1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 18880

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

Rest of EuropeRussiaAustriaGermanyFranceGreat Britain

Thou

sand

s of

hor

se p

ower


Evolution of Energy Sources

15th Century

Mid 19th Cen-tury

Early 20th Cen-tury

Late 20th Cen-tury

Mid 21st Cen-tury

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

AnimalBiomassCoalOilNatural GasNuclearHydrogen


Final Energy Consumption by Fuel Type by Transport Sector (in Exajoules)


9

23

48

102

0.74

32

39

20

0.71

40

53

30

63

Electricity (0.8%)

Heavy Oil, Biofuels,Kerosene (21.8%)

Gasoline (42.5%)

Diesel (34.5%)

Gaseous (0.8%)

Rail (2.1%)

Water (9.8%)

Heavy Road (25%)

Light Road (52.2%)

Air (10.9%)

Freight (43%)

Passenger (57%)

Mechanical Energy (32%)

Losses (68%)

Primary Energy Production by Source, United States, 1750-2013

1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 20000

5,000,000

10,000,000

15,000,000

20,000,000

25,000,000

CoalBiomassPetro-leumNatural Gas

Billio

n BT

U


World Energy Production (in Million tons oil equivalent), 2011

33.1%

23.7%

30.3%

6.4%

4.9% 1.6%

OilNatural GasCoalHydroelectricNuclearRenewables


World Oil Expenditures as % of GPD, 1972-2008

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8


Global Energy Systems Transition, (% of market)


20001850 21502050 210019501900

100

80

60

40

20

0

Solids

Liquids

Gases

Wood Coal

Oil

Natural Gas

Hydrogen

World Energy Consumption, 1965-2015 (Million tons oil equivalent)

1965

1967

1969

1971

1973

1975

1977

1979

1981

1983

1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

2009

2011

2013

2015

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

RenewablesHydroNuclearCoalGasOil


World Marketed Energy Consumption by Region, 1980-2030

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2004 2010 2015 2020 2025 20300

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

OECD Non-OECD

Quad

rillio

n Bt

u


Energy Efficiency by Transportation Mode


.1

1

10

.01

.002 10 30 100 300 1000Speed (m/sec)

Tanker

Oil

Pipe

line

TruckCargo plane

Bicy

cle

Bus

Train

Car

Helicopter

Propellerplane

Jetplane

Supersonicplane

Train

FreightPassengers

Worst

perfo

rman

ce

Best p

erfor

mance

Ener

gy c

osts

Container ship

Gaspipeline

Fuel Consumption for an Average Cargo Ship

1850 1875 1900 1925 1950 1975 20000

50

100

150

200

250

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

18,000

20,000

Fuel per 1,000 ton-miles (lbs)

Poun

ds o

f Fue

l

Dead

wei

ght T

ons


Energy Used by the Road Transportation System

66%4%1%

7%

5%

17%

Vehicle operationVehicle maintenanceVehicle manufactureInfrastructure pro-visionRaw material manufac-tureEnergy generation


Factors of Energy Use by Transportation


Vehicle

Infrastructure

Demand

Spatial Structure

Vehicle efficiencyEngine and fuel type

CapacityLevel of service

Level of economic activityPrice of fuel

Distribution of activities

Energy Use

Distance Travelled for One Ton of Cargo Using 1 kWh of Energy

Boeing 747-400

Heavy Truck

Rail (Diesel)

Rail (Electric)

Sovereing Class Con-tainership (8,000

TEU)

Post- Sovereign Class Containership

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80KM


Energy Efficiency of Main Passenger Transportation Modes

Passenger Travel by FuelRate of fuel use

MJ / passenger-kmPersonal vehicle (ICE) Gasoline 2.6Local bus (ICE) Diesel 2.8Electric bus, light rail,

subway Electricity 0.6Intercity bus (ICE) Diesel 0.7Intercity rail (diesel -

electric) Diesel 0.9Intercity rail (electric) Electricity 0.2High-speed rail (electric) Electricity 0.3Aircraft (domestic) Kerosene 2.0


Transportation Fuel Markets

Marine Aviation RoadType of fuel Low quality

(bunker oil)High quality (jet fuel)

Medium quality (diesel, gasoline)

Market size (year)

150 M metric tons

190 M metric tons

650 M metric tons

Percentage of operating costs

40% 25% 18-20%


Typical Energy Use for a Car

12%

33%

29%

13%

6%8%

MomentumExhaustCylinder coolingEngine frictionTransmission and axlesBraking


Typical Energy Use for a Car

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Idle LossesDrivetrain LossesParasitic LossesPower to Wheels

BrakingRolling resistanceWind ResistanceEngine FrictionPumpingCombustionThermal Losses (radiator)


Engine and Power to Wheels LossesEnergy Use and Losses

World Oil Energy Consumption by Sector, 1973-2013

1973

2004

2013

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

19.9

9.9

8.4

45.4

57.7

63.8

11.5

16.8

16.2

23.2

15.6

11.6

IndustryTransportNon-energyOther sectors


Demand for Refined Petroleum Products by Sector in the United States, 1960-2014 (in Quadrillion BTUs)

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 20140

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Transportation IndustrialResidential and commercial Electric utilities


Energy Consumption by Transportation Mode in the United States, 1960-2010 (in Trillion BTUs)

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 20100

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

PipelineWaterRailRoadAir


Energy Consumption by Road Transportation in the United States, 1970-2012 (in Trillion BTUs)

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 20120

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

18,000

20,000

22,000

24,000

BusCombination TruckSingle-Unit 2-Axle 6-Tire or More TruckLight Duty Vehicle, Long Wheel BaseLight Duty Vehicle, Short Wheel Base and Motorcycle


Energy Intensities of Passenger Modes, 1980-2000

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

AutomobilesTransit busesIntercity busesCertified air carriers Intercity AmtrakRail transitBt

u pe

r pas

seng

er-m

ile


Energy Intensities of Freight Modes, 1970-2007

1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 20100

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

Trucks (Btu per ve-hicle-mile)


Fuel Consumption and Travel by Certificated Air Carriers in the United States, 1960-2000

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 20000

400

800

1,200

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

0.40

0.45

0.50

Average Miles Flown Per Aircraft (thousands)Miles per gallon for domestic operationsMiles per gallon for international operations

Mile

s flo

wn

Mile

s pe

r gal

lon


0 5 10 15 20 25 30 350

1

1


Average Miles per Gallon Traveled by Road Vehicle in the United States, 1980-2000

Passenger cars

Buses

Light trucks

Heavy trucks

Average

0 5 10 15 20 25 302000 1990 1980


Average Gasoline Consumption for New Vehicles, United States, 1972-2014 (in miles per gallon)

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

Cars Light Trucks AverageCopyright © 1998-2016, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Global Studies & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use.

Change in Average Vehicle Characteristics, 1981-2003 (in %)

Fuel Economy

Weight

Horsepower

Acceleration

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100


Total Motor Vehicle Fuel Consumption and Travel in the United States, 1960-2007

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 201010

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

400

450

500

550

600

650

700

750

800

Average Miles Traveled per GallonAverage Fuel Consumed per Vehicle (Gallons)

Aver

age

Mile

sTra

vele

d pe

r Gal

lon

Aver

age

Fuel

Con

sum

ed p

er V

ehicl

e (G

allo

ns)


Components of Retail Costs of Gasoline, United States, 1999-2005

1999

2005

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

37

53

36

19

13

19

14

9

Crude oilFederal & State taxesRefining costsDistribution, retail & market-ing costs


Automobile Emission Factors

5 10 20 30 35 45 55 60 70 80 85 95 1001

10

100

1000

0

5

10

15

20HCCONOx

Speed (in km/hr)

Emiss

ions

(gra

ms)

% o

f Veh

icle-

km


Retail Motor Gasoline Prices, Selected Countries, 1990-2009

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 20080

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

CanadaChinaGermanyJapanUnited StatesFranceItalyUnited KingdomNo

min

al d

olla

rs p

er g

allo

n


Retail Motor Gasoline Prices (cents per liter), Selected Countries, 2004-2010

Venezuela

Saudi Arabia

United States

Mexico

Argentina

India

Australia

South Korea

Poland

Japan

Italy

United Kingdom

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

2004 2011Copyright © 1998-2016, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Global Studies & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use.

Annual Vehicle-Miles Traveled in the United States, Year-over-Year Changes, 1971-2013

Jan-

71Ja

n-72

Jan-

73Ja

n-74

Jan-

75Ja

n-76

Jan-

77Ja

n-78

Jan-

79Ja

n-80

Jan-

81Ja

n-82

Jan-

83Ja

n-84

Jan-

85Ja

n-86

Jan-

87Ja

n-88

Jan-

89Ja

n-90

Jan-

91Ja

n-92

Jan-

93Ja

n-94

Jan-

95Ja

n-96

Jan-

97Ja

n-98

Jan-

99Ja

n-00

Jan-

01Ja

n-02

Jan-

03Ja

n-04

Jan-

05Ja

n-06

Jan-

07Ja

n-08

Jan-

09Ja

n-10

Jan-

11Ja

n-12

Jan-

13

$0

$20

$40

$60

$80

$100

$120

$140

-4.0%

-2.0%

0.0%

2.0%

4.0%

6.0%

8.0%West Texas Intermediate, Monthly Nominal Spot Oil Price


Automobile Fuel Consumption and Fuel Efficiency

0 10 20 30 40 50 600

2

4

6

8

10

12

Miles per Gallon

Gallo

ns C

onsu

med

per

100

Mile

s Dr

iven


Gasoline Price and Fuel Consumption, Western Industrial Countries, 1994

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 18000

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

Liters per person

Dolla

rs p

er li

ter

United States

Portugal

Canada

AustraliaJapan


Gas Consumption Tax in the United States, 1999 (in $ per mile per gallon per vehicle)

More than 22.5

Between 22.5 and 21.5










Less than 12.5

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000


Bunker Fuel Spot Prices, Singapore FOB

2005

Q3

2006

Q1

2006

Q3

2007

Q1

2007

Q3

2008

Q1

2008

Q3

2009

Q1

2009

Q3

2010

Q1

2010

Q3

2011

Q1

2011

Q3

2012

Q1

2012

Q3

2013

Q1

2013

Q3

2014

Q10

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Bunker fuel IFO380 Bunker fuel IFO180 Marine Diesel Oil MDO

USD

per T

on


Fuel Consumption by Ship Category, 2007

12%

15%

19%

13%

25%

5%

11%

Crude Oil TankersTankersBulk CarriersGeneral CargoContainerVehicle/RoRoPassenger


Fuel Consumption by Containership Size and Speed

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 250

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

4,000-5,0005,000-6,0007,000-8,0008,000-9,0009,000-10,00010,000+

Speed (Knots)

Fuel

Con

sum

ptio

n (T

ons

per d

ay)


Ship Size (TEU)

Normal

Speed

Slow Steam

ing

Extra Slow

Steaming

Fuel Consumption at 20 knots in Tons per TEU per Day by Containership Size

2,000 - 3,000

3,000 - 4,000

4,000 - 5,000

5,000 - 6,000

6,000 - 7,000

7,000 - 8,000

8,000 - 9,000

9,000 - 10,000

10,000+0.000

0.005

0.010

0.015

0.020

0.025

0.030

Ship Size, in TEU


Effects of Speed on Fuel Consumption, Panamax Bulk Carrier

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 170

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Speed (Knots)

Tons

per

Day


Trend in Aircraft Fuel Efficiency (Fuel burned per Seat)

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 201020

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Year of Introduction

% o

f Bas

e (C

omet

4)


Trends in Fuel Efficiency, Selected Passenger Jet Planes

1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 20150

1

2

3

4

5

6B720-000

B720B

B707-300

B707-100B

B707-300B

DC9-10

DC9-30

B727-200

DC9-40

B737-100/200

B747-100

DC10-10B747-200/300

DC10-30

DC10-40

L1011-500

MD80A310-300

B767-200

B737-300 A300-600

B757-200

B767-300

A320-100/200

B747-400

B737-500/600

MD11

B777-200

A380

B787-8

A350-800

Ener

gy In

tens

ity (M

J/pkm

)


Potential to Reduce Energy Consumption in Air and Maritime Transportation

Sector

Category Measure Potential Improvem

entsAviation

Operations Advanced communications, navigation and surveillance (CNS) and air traffic management (ATM)

5%

Airframe Design and Propulsion

More efficient turbofan engines, Unducted fan engines, Advanced lightweight materials, Improved aerodynamics, New airframe designs

30%

Alternative Fuels

Medium term: Biofuels; Long term: Biofuels, Hydrogen

25%

Marine

Operations Speed reduction, Optimized routing, Reduced port time

45%

Ship Design and Propulsion

Novel hull coatings and propellers, Fuel efficiency optimization, Combined cycle operation, Multiple engines

35%

Alternative Fuels and Power

Marine diesel oil (MDO), Liquefied natural gas (LNG), Wind power sails

40%Copyright © 1998-2016, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Global Studies & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use.

Potential Impacts of High Oil Prices on Transportation


Price

P

Q

Price

A/B

P

Q(A/B)

A

B

Range

R(B)

12B

A

Rail

Road RawMaterials

DistributionCenters

RetailersManufacturing

Cost

Usage level Modal shift

Service area changes Gateway / Hub selection

Network configuration Supply chain propagation

Costs of Shipping a 40 foot Container to New York

Barrel at $30 Barrel at $60 Barrel at $100$0

$1,000

$2,000

$3,000

$4,000

$5,000

$6,000

$7,000

$8,000

From Hong KongFrom Mexico


Costs of Shipping a 40 foot Container From China to the American East Coast

0 50 100 150 200$0

$2,000

$4,000

$6,000

$8,000

$10,000

$12,000

$14,000

$16,000

From China From MexicoCopyright © 1998-2016, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Global Studies & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use.

THE GEOGRAPHY OF


Concept 3

Transportation, Land Use and Environment


Land Area Consumed by the Car in Selected Countries, 1999

United States

Canada

Mexico

Japan

France

Germany

United Kingdom

Sweden

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.081.7%

0.3%

0.4%

3.5%

1.9%

2.2%

1.8%

0.6%

Total land used by the car per capita (Ha) % of total land area used by the carCopyright © 1998-2016, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Global Studies & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use.

Current and Potential Car Fleet in India and China

India

China

0 200,000,000 400,000,000 600,000,000 800,000,000

8,200,000

12,800,000

512,500,000

640,000,000

Vehicle Fleet Size for Industrialized Vehicle Ownership LevelSize of Vehicle Fleet (1999)


Spatial Form, Pattern and Interaction and the Environmental Impacts of Transportation


Form

Patt

ern

Inte

ract

ions

Sustainable Urban Passenger Travel, Selected Cities


Transport Energy Consumption and Density in Major Metropolitan Areas, 1990


80

40

20

60

20 60 30040 80 100

Los Angeles

Sydney

London Singapore

United States

Australia and Canada

EuropeAsia

Hong Kong

Chicago

HoustonPhoenix

DetroitDenver

AdelaideMelbourne

Toronto

New York

Vienna

ParisBerlin Tokyo

Ener

gy c

onsu

mpt

ion

per

capi

ta (

1,00

0 m

illio

ns o

f jou

les)

Population density (people per hectare)

Population Density, Selected Cities, 1960-1990

Tokyo

New York

Paris

London

San Francisco

Washington

Melbourne

Hamburg

Amsterdam

Frankfurt

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000

1990

People per square kmCopyright © 1998-2016, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Global Studies & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use.

THE GEOGRAPHY OF


Concept 4

Transport and Sustainability


Sustainable Development



Social Equity Economic Efficiency

Environmental

Responsibility

• Living conditions

• Equal opportunity

• Social cohesion• International

solidarity• Maintenance of

human capital

• Economic growth

• Efficiency and competitiveness

• Flexibility and stability

• Production / consumption

• Employment• International

trade

• Consumption of resources

• Materials and wastes

• Risks• Rate of change• Natural and

cultural landscape

Inflation-Adjusted Price of some Commodities, 1950-2009 (1998=100)

1950

1952

1954

1956

1958

1960

1962

1964

1966

1968

1970

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Chromium Copper Nickel Tin Tungsten AverageCopyright © 1998-2016, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Global Studies & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use.

Global Sustainability


EconomicDevelopment

Ecological

DevelopmentSo

cial

Develo

pmen

tSocia

lismConservation

Ecologism

Sustainable Transportation



Environment

Climate Change

Air quality

Noise

Land Use

Waste

Economy

Materials and Energy

Growth

Employment

Pricing

Competitiveness

Society

Safety

Health

Disturbance

Access

Equity

Sustainable Transportation

Modes Infrastructures

Operations

Emission Controlled Areas for Maritime Shipping


Sustainability Dimensions in the Maritime Industry


Maritime Shipping

Port Operations

Ship recyclingHazardous materials

NoiseDredgingBrownfield sitesOdors

Water qualityAir qualityWaste managementResource conservationEnergy consumptionOil spillsAnti-fouling paintsDust

Environmental Management System for Port and Maritime Transport


Clean Air Action Plan, Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach

Mode Control Measures CAAP cost ($M) Comments

Heavy duty diesel trucks (HDV)

All trucks meet 2007 EPA standards by 2011Alternative fuel station

$1,808 Clean Truck Program: licensed trucking companies, employee drivers, costs to be paid by state bonds, ports, fees on cargo owners

Ocean going vessels (OGV)

Vessel speed reductionElectric shore powerAuxiliary engine fuel standardsMain engine fuel standardsEngine emissions control devices

202 Incentives for VSR, cleaner fuels; ports pay for shore power

Cargo handling equipment (CHE)

Cleanest available technologiesAll CHE meet 2007 EPA standards by 2010

0 Accelerated equipment replacement by terminal operators

Harbor craft Gradual shift to highest EPA standards

0 Retrofits, engine replacements

Railroad Switch engine replacement for local rail lineIncreased emissions control on Class 1 railroadsCleanest available technology for new rail yards

21 Switch engine replacement part of existing agreement; Class 1 RR compliance by 2011; no new rail yards developed

Other Technology Advancement ProgramInfrastructure and operational efficiencyAdministrative costs

36 TAP for development of clean vehicle technology

Total $2,067


General Indicators of Urban Sustainability


Urban Sustainability

Urban Sustainability

Water, materials and waste Energy and air quality

Livability

Transportation and

telecommunications

Land, green spacesand biodiversity

chapter 8 transportation, energy and the environment

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