chapter 8 revolt of the rednecks, 1900-1932images.pcmac.org/sisfiles/schools/ms/desotocounty/... ·...
TRANSCRIPT
T210T210
210 A Place Called Mississippi
P L A C E SWinona; Greenwood; Parchman Farm;
Godbold Wells; Vardaman; Seneca Falls, New York; Flora; Greenville; Juniper
Grove; Poplarville; Yazoo City; Chicago, Illinois; Hatt iesburg; Biloxi
P E O P L ETh eodore G. Bilbo, Andrew H. Longino, Anselm J. McLaurin, Th eodore “Teddy”
Roosevelt, Laurence C. Jones, John Sharp Williams, LeRoy Percy, Woodrow Wilson, Ida B. Wells, Belle Kearney, Nellie Nugent, Matt ie Plunkett , G. A. Hobbs, Lee Russell,
Henry L. Whitf ield, Richard Wright
T E R M Sinaugural address, charter, New Capitol, direct primary, white cappers, lynching,
Piney Woods School, centennial, armistice, women’s suff rage, bribe, protégé, prop-
erty assessment, dipping, Great Migration
Chapter 8
Revolt of the Rednecks, 1900-1932Pages 210-235
Section 1The New Mississippi
Pages 214-219
Section 2James K. Vardaman,
“The White Chief”
Pages 220-225
Section 3“The Man” Bilbo
Pages 226-233
Chapter ReviewPages 234-235
DiscussionIda B. Wells, a fearless and well-
respected social reformer, was born
in Holly Springs, Mississippi. When she
was sixteen, her parents and a young
infant brother died of yellow fever.
She, then, assumed the responsibility
of raising her fi ve younger brothers
and sisters. Ask students: What would
you do when faced with this personal
tragedy?
EngagementCreate heterogeneous groups of
three or four students. Ask each group
to create a collage of people, places,
and events representing the centen-
nial of Mississippi statehood.
Chapter 8 Competencies and Objectives
Civil Rights/Human Rights4. Understand and describe the historical circumstances and
conditions that necessitated the development of civil rights
and human rights protections and/or activism for various
minority groups in Mississippi.
Economics5. Understand the importance of how geography, history, and
politics aff ect the economic life of Mississippi from the past
to the present.
T211T211
Chapter 8: Revolt of the Rednecks, 1900-1932 211
ou will remember that, in Chapter 1, we learned how im-
portant geography has been in
shaping Mississippi history. We
briefl y discussed the “rednecks,”
a term that described the state’s white small
farmers and day laborers, who were also known
as “poor whites.” We also learned in Chapter
7 that a small ruling elite known as Bourbons
gained control of the Democratic Party after
Reconstruction and exercised almost complete
domination in state government. Th e Bourbons
were concentrated in the counties with black
majorities, and they neglected the social and
economic interests of poor whites, who greatly
outnumbered this ruling class.
Eventually, white small farmers and laborers
in the Piney Woods and the coastal region joined
with poor whites in northeast Mississippi to
take control of state government. Th is takeover
is called the “Revolt of the Rednecks.” Two of
Mississippi’s most famous politicians, James K.
Vardaman and Th eodore G. Bilbo, were proud to
be identifi ed with the poor whites. Th e rednecks
controlled Mississippi politics until the Great
Depression of the 1930s.
Left : Mississippi’s new state capitol, completed in 1903, was larger and more ornate than the old capitol. Th e chamber of the Mississippi House of Representatives features this beautiful stained glass dome.
Did You Know?The exterior walls of the state capi-
tol are made of Bedford limestone and
the base course is Georgia granite.
State SymbolismThe two identical fi gures you see
at the top of the arches in this picture
are renditions of the Mississippi Coat
of Arms, which was adopted in 1894. It
consists of a shield with an eagle upon
it. The eagle has stars and stripes on
his breast, and holds a palm branch in
his right talon and a bundle of arrows
in his left. Above the eagle is the word
“Mississippi,” and below it is the motto
“Virtute et armis,” which means “by
valor and arms.”
Ask students: What do you think the
palm branch and the arrows symbol-
ize? (peace and war) Is it signifi cant that
the eagle’s head is turned toward the
palm branch? (It probably indicates a
preference for peace over war.) Can you
fi nd a similar image on the back of a $1
bill? (The Great Seal of the United States
has a similar eagle image.)
NOTE: Websites appear, disappear,
and change addresses constantly. The
Internet addresses included through-
out this program were operative when
the text was published.
Notes
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T212T212
LITERATURE
In 1900, L. Frank Baum published Th e Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Between 1929
and 1932, Mississippi writer William Faulkner published some of his most
famous works: Th e Sound and the Fury, As I Lay Dying, and Light in August.
EXPANSION
Oklahoma became the 46th state in 1907. New Mexico and Arizona were added in
1912. Our nation held at 48 states until 1959. In 1920, the population of Mississippi was
1,790,618. Th e U.S. was106,021,537. In 1930, Mississippi hit a new milestone at 2,009,821. Th e U.S. was 123,202,624.
SCIENCE & INVENTIONS
Many products we use today were invented in the early twentieth century: the escalator, a practical vacuum cleaner,
windshield wipers, air conditioning, cellophane, and crayons, to name a few.
FASHION
During the Roaring Twenties, fashionable young women called “fl appers” began to bob their hair and wear shorter dresses.
ARCHITECTURE
In 1930, the Chrysler Building in New York City was completed, at 1,047 feet, the
tallest man-made structure in the world. It was surpassed a year later by New York’s
Empire State Building at 1,454 feet.
212 Chapter 8: Revolt of the Rednecks, 1900-1932
EXPLORATION
In 1909, Americans Robert Peary and Matt hew Henson and their Inuit crew
became the fi rst people known to reach the North Pole. In 1911, Roald Amundsen
and four Norwegian crew members were the fi rst to reach the South Pole.
MUSIC
Popular songs included “Won’t You Come Home, Bill Bailey,” “Swing Low, Sweet
Chariot,” and “Waiting for the Robert E. Lee.” Th e blues were born in Mississippi.
TRANSPORTATION
In 1903, the Wright Brothers made their fi rst fl ight at Kitt y Hawk, North Carolina.
Did You Know?KDKA, the fi rst radio station in the
United States, began broadcasting in
Pittsburgh on November 2, 1920.
Using Photos and Illustrations
Students can go to www.nyc-
architecture.com/MID/MID021.htm
to see images of the Chrysler Building
and to www.nyc-architecture.com/
MID/MID073.htm to see images of
the Empire State Building. Ask stu-
dents if they have ever seen either
building in person. Have they seen it
on television or in the movies? Find
out which building they like better,
and why.
EngagementAssign pairs of students various
inventions of the early twentieth cen-
tury. Ask student pairs to research their
invention including the inventor, how
the invention operates, the time under
development, and the invention’s ben-
efi t to society. Have students present
their research fi nds to the class.
Notes
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T213T213
Signs of the Times 213
ENTERTAINMENT
Dance crazes of the 1920s included the Charleston, fox-trot, and tango.
Commercially licensed radio stations began broadcasting in the U.S. around 1920.
FOOD
In 1930, Clarence Birdseye patented a system that packed foods into waxed cartons,which were fl ash-frozen under high pressure,
starting the frozen food industry.
1932Franklin D. Roosevelt elected president
1931Cott on prices fell to 6.16 cents
1909NAACP founded
191317th Amendment ratifi ed, allowing
direct election of U.S. senators
1917U.S. entered World War I
1918End of World War I
1929Panic of 1929
191918th Amendment ratifi ed, beginning Prohibition era
192019th Amendment ratifi ed, giving women the right to vote
1928Th eodore G. Bilbo began 2nd term as governor
1927Great Flood on the Mississippi River
1924Henry L. Whitf ield began term as governor
1922Vardaman defeated for election to U.S. Senate
1918James K. Vardaman defeated for reelection to U.S. Senate
1917Statehood centennial
1916Th eodore G. Bilbo began 1st term as governor
1913James K. Vardaman began term in U.S. Senate
1900Andrew H. Longino began term as governor
1902President “Teddy” Roosevelt hunted bear in MississippiDirect primary law passed
19031st direct (“white”) primary election held
1904James K. Vardaman began term as governor
1908State child labor law passed
1912Earl L. Brewer began term as governor; Th eodore G. Bilbo as lieutenant governor
19321909 1920
Using PhotographsHave students examine the three
individual portraits at the top of the
timeline. Then have students skim the
chapter, without looking back at this
page, and see if they can identify these
three men. (Andrew H. Longino, James
K. Vardaman, and Theodore G. Bilbo)
What do these men have in common?
(They were all governors of Mississippi.)
Higher Level ThinkingHave students review the timeline
on this page. Ask students: Which
events/developments improved our
democratic form of government?
How?
DiscussionMississippi’s bicentennial is ap-
proaching in 2017. Ask students: If
you were assembling a time capsule
for posterity (to be opened in 2117),
what items would you select?
Notes
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T214T214
As you read, look for• the accomplishments of Andrew H. Longino,
Mississippi’s fi rst twentieth-century governor;• the growth of the capital city and the building of
the New Capitol;• the initiation of the direct primary and its
infl uence on the election of 1903;• terms: inaugural address, charter, New Capitol,
direct primary.
Th e turning of a century is an exciting event. In 1900,celebrations, ceremonies, and extravaganzas were held through-
out America to welcome the twentieth century. Th e new century
was hailed as an era of progress and change. But even the most
imaginative Mississippians in 1900 would be dazzled by the new
technology that has revolutionized the way we live. Th ey would be
dumbfounded by the social and racial changes that have come to
Mississippi. History takes time. While we are living through fun-
damental changes in our social and political environment, we are
not always aware of the breadth and depth of those changes. Th e
changes in Mississippi during the opening years of the twentieth
century were epic in their proportions.
A New Governor: Andrew H. LonginoTh e fi rst governor of the new century represented a major turn-
ing point in Mississippi history. Andrew H. Longino was the fi rst
Below: Th e economy of Mississippi took a leap forward under the gov-ernorship of Andrew Longino, who actively pursued new industry for the state. Bott om: In this panoramic view of Jackson in 1910, you can see both the New Capitol, on the far left , and the Old Capitol, just to the right of center. Jackson underwent dramatic growth during this period.
214 Chapter 8: Revolt of the Rednecks, 1900-1932
Section 1
The New Mississippi
Introduce
OutlineA. A New Governor:
Andrew H. Longino
B. New Politics: The Election
of 1903
MaterialsTextbook, pages 214-219
Teacher Tech DVD
Vocabulary Worksheet
Lesson Plan
Guided Reading, 8-1mystatehistory.com
Online Textbook
Teach
BellringerWrite the term progressive on the
overhead or Smart Board. Ask students
what it means to be progressive. Tell
them that, as the country became
more industrialized, a number of prob-
lems surfaced. Progressives believed
government was best able to address
those problems.
Did You Know?It was during Andrew H. Longino’s
term as governor that the magnolia
was designated the state fl ower.
Section 1 Competencies and Objectives
Economics5a. Identify and analyze the economic development over time of
major industries in Mississippi (including but not limited to
agricultural production, manufacturing, rise of machines,
boll weevil, development of natural resources, international
investments, the Great Migration, etc.).
T215T215
A graduate of Mississippi College in
Clinton, Andrew H. Longino was the fi rst
Mississippi governor to hold a degree from a
Mississippi institution of higher learning.
Section 1: Th e New Mississippi 215
governor elected after the Civil War who was not a Confederate veteran.
He was also the last governor nominated by the convention system. In this
respect, Longino represents the end of an era. He was the last governor to
be handpicked by the ruling elite that dominated the state Democratic Party.
Governor Longino anticipated the sweeping changes the twentieth cen-
tury would bring to Mississippi. In his inaugural address (the speech made
by a governor or a president at the beginning of his or her term), he warned
the people to brace themselves for those changes. He advised Mississippians
not to look back toward the past but ahead toward the future.
New Industry for MississippiGovernor Longino believed that Mississippi’s future economic prosperity
depended on industrial expansion. He encouraged the legislature to off er
tax exemptions to new industries locating in Mississippi. On the basis of the
number of charters issued during his administration, Governor Longino was
highly successful in attracting new industry to our state.
A charter is the document that creates a new corpora-
tion or a new city or educational institution. During his
four years in offi ce, 1,312 charters for new businesses
in Mississippi were issued. Governor Longino’s plans
to expand the state’s manufacturing base might have
solved the economic problems of Mississippi’s share-
croppers and day laborers had the proposals been
continued for a longer period of time. But the program
of industrial expansion was abandoned by Governor
Longino’s successor, James K. Vardaman.
A New CapitalTh e impact of Governor Longino’s industrial pro-
gram was especially evident in Jackson. In July 1902,
a local newspaper reported that over $2.1 million in
new construction was in progress in the capital city.
From his inauguration in 1900 to the end of World
War I in 1918, the population of Jackson more than
tripled. Jackson is uniquely a city of the twentieth cen-
tury. Before 1900, the state’s capital grew very slowly.
After the turn of the century, Jackson experienced
phenomenal growth.
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970
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908070605040302010
111111
POPU
LATI
ON
(in
thou
sand
s)
Higher Level ThinkingShare this quotation from Governor
Longino’s inaugural address: “…the
most demoralizing, brutalizing, and
ruinous species of lawlessness known
to any free and brave people.” Ask
students: What is Governor Longino
referring to in this quotation? (Lynch-
ing. Approximately, one-fourth of his
inaugural address was dedicated to
this topic.)
Building 21st-Century Skills: Reading Bar Graphs
Instruct students to review the bar
graph on Jackson’s population growth
(Figure 21). Ask students: Which de-
cade saw the largest increase in Jack-
son’s population? (1950 to 1960)
EngagementInvite students to research the pop-
ulation of the city of Jackson from 1980
to the present by off ering them extra
credit.
Craft and Structure4. Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used
in a text, including vocabulary describing political, social, or
economic aspects of history/social studies.
Integration of Knowledge and Ideas7. Integrate quantitative or technical analysis (e.g., charts,
research data) with qualitative analysis in print or digital text.
T216T216
A New CapitolIn addition to encouraging industrial expansion, Governor Longino
recommended the construction of a new state capitol building. Th e old
capitol, which had been in use for over sixty years, was in need of extensive
repair. In 1888, an architect who examined the building predicted that the
capitol might collapse at any time. After this report, a bill was introduced in
the legislature authorizing the construction of a new capitol. But the bill was
vetoed by Governor Anselm J. McLaurin, who objected to both the size and
design of the new capitol building. Governor McLaurin said the new building
would be too small and was more suitable for a county courthouse than a
statehouse. No further action was taken until Governor Longino took offi ce.
In his inaugural address, which was given in the old dilapidated capitol,
Governor Longino recommended a new building that all Mississippians
could be proud of. Th e legislature reacted favorably to his suggestion. Fol-
lowing groundbreaking ceremonies on January 1, 1901, construction of
the capitol, which cost just over $1 million, proceeded with few delays or
diffi culties. Two years later, on June 3, 1903, the New Capitol (the name
that our statehouse is still called) was offi cially dedicated, and state offi cials
moved into their new quarters in September.
A New Electoral System Th e most sweeping change the new century brought to Mississippi was a
new system of nominating and electing public offi cials. During the Bourbon
era, candidates for state and county offi ces were nominated by state and local
Democratic conventions or executive committees. Because the Bourbons
controlled the Democratic Party, they handpicked the candidates for public
offi ce. Although redneck voters outnumbered the Bourbons, they could not
AA NN CC iit llAbove: Th is architectural rendering shows an early design for the New Capitol. Compare it to the photograph on the facing page. What are some of the changes made in the fi nal design? Opposite page, below: Mississippi’s new state capitol was designed by Th eodore Link. Th e construction cost of S1,095,681 was paid by the Illinois Central Railroad, which owed the state back taxes. In 1979, the New Capitol underwent a complete renovation at a cost of $19 million.
216 Chapter 8: Revolt of the Rednecks, 1900-1932
Did You Know?Theodore Link designed the new
state capitols of both Mississippi and
Arkansas.
Using Photos and Illustrations
After students have examined the
two images of the New Capitol on
pages 216 and 217, have them dis-
cuss what changes were made to the
original design.
Higher Level ThinkingAsk students: How did Mississippi’s
convention system undermine our
democratic form of government?
Notes
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T217T217
get their candidates elected because they could not get them nominated.
Bourbons defended the existing system as a defense of white supremacy,
because it kept blacks from being nominated for public offi ce.
By 1900, the demand for a new system of nominating candidates had wide
popular support among voters and among a large segment of the state press.
In a special message to the legislature in 1900, Governor Longino said that
white Mississippians were “impatient and displeased with the dubious and
devious methods of the party nominating machinery.” In response to the de-
mand of white citizens, the legislature passed a direct primary law on March
4, 1902, and Governor Longino signed the bill into law. A direct primaryis a nominating election in which all the party’s members—not just those
attending a nominating convention—vote for the candidates of their choice.
On June 22, 1903, the Mississippi Democratic Party Executive Committee
met in Jackson and passed a resolution stating that only white Democrats
would be entitled to vote in the party’s direct primary. Th e direct primary,
which soon became known as the white primary, or popular primary, elimi-
nated blacks from politics because the Democratic Party was the only viable(capable of succeeding) party in the state. Th is new method of nominating
candidates transformed Mississippi politics. No longer could a few men
handpick the candidates for public offi ce, because voters nominated the
candidates in a popular election. Candidates for offi ce made their appeals
directly to the people rather than to a few party leaders.
Section 1: Th e New Mississippi 217
Th e dome of the New Capitol reaches a height
of 180 feet above the ground. Atop the
dome is an eagle made of copper covered
with gold leaf. It spreads 15 feet from
wingtip to wingtip and stands 8 feet high.
DiscussionAsk students: In spite of the direct
primary, how were black Mississippi-
ans eff ectively still disfranchised?
Using the InternetInvite students to examine images
of Mississippi’s state capitol dome,
cupola, and eagle as found at this web-
site: www.statecapitols.tigerleaf.
com/wt-eagles.htm.
EngagementIn the classroom, have students
measure a width of 15 feet and a
height of 8 feet to get an idea of the
true size of the New Capitol dome’s
golden eagle.
Notes
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T218T218
As you have already learned, in a one-party system, elections are not usu-
ally decided on the important issues, but on the personality and style of the
candidates. Th e primary system produced a new breed of fl amboyant (showy,
colorful) politicians who used gimmicks and oratory to gain the approval of
voters. James K. Vardaman often traveled around the state on a wagon drawn
by several teams of oxen. Th eodore G. Bilbo and several other candidates used
their red neckties to emphasize their identifi cation with rednecks.
Th e winners of the August Democratic primaries were assured of victory
because they did not have any opposition in the November general election.
It was not until the revival of the Republican Party in the 1960s that Demo-
cratic candidates had any real competition.
New Politics: Th e Election of 1903Th e fi rst direct primary election was held in August 1903. Th at campaign
set the tone and style of Mississippi politics for many years. Th e three major
candidates for governor were Frank A. Critz, James K. Vardaman, and Ed-
mond F. Noel. Although blacks were prohibited by Democratic Party rules
from participating in the primary, and they could not infl uence the outcome
of the election, race was still the dominant issue in that campaign. Vardaman
advocated the repeal of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, and
accused blacks of being lazy, dishonest, and mentally unfi t for citizenship.
He played on the fears and negative instincts of white Mississippians and
excited the people on the issue of race. Vardaman promised to keep blacks
“in their place” if he were elected governor. He also promised to close black
schools. Why deny the rights of citizenship to blacks, Vardaman asked, and
then educate them to fulfi ll the responsibilities of citizenship? Vardaman
said that if black schools were discontinued there would be more money
for white schools throughout the state.
Vardaman’s racial rhetoric was matched by his attacks on big business,
banks, and railroads. Th e wealthy class, he warned, ran the world for their
own selfi sh desires and possessed no conscience or pity for the poor. During
the 1903 campaign, Vardaman called for regulation of big business and the
abandonment of Mississippi’s industrial expansion program. He predicted
that government might have to take over the railroads and other businesses if
something was not done to curb the power
of big corporations. Vardaman claimed
that Governor Longino was controlled by
a clique of businessmen and politicians in
the state capital that he called the “Jackson
Ring.” Because he was poor and had risen
from a humble background, Vardaman
said he was the only true representative
of the people. Th is campaign style proved
highly successful for Vardaman and other
politicians for many years. Vardaman led
the ticket in the first primary and then
defeated Frank A. Critz in the runoff .
Reviewing the Section
1. Defi ne in sentence form: inaugural address, New Capitol, direct primary.2. What were two “fi rsts” associated with the
election of Governor Andrew H. Longino?3. Why did James K. Vardaman say that he was the only true representative of the
people in the election of 1903?
Top: James K. Vardaman defeated Frank A. Critz and Edmund F. Noel to win the governorship in 1903. Above: Noel was elected governor in 1907.
218 Chapter 8: Revolt of the Rednecks, 1900-1932
Using Reading Skills:Analysis
Instruct students to read this page
of the textbook. Then ask students to
identify the various groups that James
K. Vardaman attacked in his 1903
gubernatorial campaign. How did he
characterize each group? What word
would you select to characterize the
Vardaman campaign?
Higher Level ThinkingAsk students: In what ways did
James K. Vardaman’s attacks appeal
to his base of supporters?
AssessAnswers to “Reviewing the Section”1. An inaugural address is the
speech made by a governor or a
president at the beginning of his
or her term. The New Capitol is
the name that our statehouse–
which was dedicated in 1903–is
still called. A direct primary is
a nominating election in which
all the party’s members–not just
those attending a nominating
convention–vote for the candi-
dates of their choice.
2. Andrew H. Longino was the
fi rst Mississippi governor of the
twentieth century, and he was the
fi rst Mississippi governor elected
after the Civil War who was not a
Confederate veteran. He was also
the fi rst Mississippi governor to
hold a degree from a Mississippi
institution of higher learning.
3. Because he was poor and had
risen from a humble background,
James K. Vardaman claimed to be
the only true representative of the
people.
Notes
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T219T219
In 1902, President Th eodore “Teddy” Roosevelt came to Mississippi to assist in the set-tlement of a boundary dispute between Louisiana and Mis-sissippi. While he was in the state, he went bear hunting in the Yazoo River swamps. He was accompanied on the hunt by a few local residents and a guide named Holt Collier. Th is black hunter and famous guide claimed to have served in the Confederate army as a fi ghting soldier and not merely as an orderly or cook as some other blacks had done.
Aft er a couple of days, the Roosevelt hunting party had not seen any bears and “Teddy” was gett ing ready to return to Washington. Shortly before the president left the hunt, a bear cub was spott ed, and the other hunters off ered “Teddy” the fi rst shot. However, the president refused to shoot the cub. One of the reporters who was traveling with the president wrote a story about “Teddy’s” refusal to shoot the cub. Soon a cartoon showing Roosevelt walking away from the cub appeared in newspapers throughout the country. Aft er seeing the cartoon in a New York newspaper, a Brooklyn toy manufacturer designed a bear cub that he called a “Teddy bear” and began selling the stuff ed animal. Th e teddy bear has remained one of the most popular toys in America for more than a hundred years.
Section 1: Th e New Mississippi 219
Above: President Roosevelt’s famous bear hunt in Mississippi is the subject of one of the murals by Robert Daff ord that decorate the waterfront at Vicksburg. In this detail, Roosevelt is mounted on horseback on the left ; the guide, Holt Collier, is fourth from the right. Roosevelt’s unwilling-ness to shoot a bear tied to a tree became a national news story and led to the creation of the teddy bear.
Using the InternetInvite students to read about the re-
markable life of Holt Collier as found at
this website: http://library.fws.gov/
refuges/HoltCollier-TheMan.pdf.
EngagementAsk students if they have ever had
a teddy bear. If so, how many have
they had, and how did they resemble
or diff er from one another? Why has
the popularity of teddy bears endured
over the years while other dolls and
toys have come and gone? Have them
draw a picture of their favorite teddy
bear or draw a design of a teddy bear
they would like to see in a store window.
Notes
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T220T220
As you read, look for• the positive and negative impacts of Governor
James K. Vardaman’s administration;• James K. Vardaman’s U.S. Senate campaigns;• how Vardaman’s opposition to President
Woodrow Wilson’s World War I policies led to his political downfall;
• the movement for women’s suff rage and the resulting Nineteenth Amendment;
• terms: white cappers, lynching, Piney Woods School, centennial, armistice, women’s suff rage.
James K. Vardaman was the quintessential (best example, most representative) redneck politician. For his vivid racial rhetoric,
he was known fondly among his supporters as “Th e White Chief.”
Shortly before the Civil War, Vardaman’s family moved from Mississippi
to Texas, where he was born on July 26, 1861. His family returned to Missis-
sippi and settled in Yalobusha County in 1868. After studying law with his
cousin, Hernando De Soto Money, Vardaman was admitted to the practice
of law in 1882. For a short time, he edited the Winona Advance. He later
moved to Greenwood and published the Greenwood Enterprise.
After moving to Greenwood, Vardaman became the champion of white
small farmers. In 1895 and 1899, he sought the Democratic Party’s nomina-
tion for governor, but on both occasions he was rejected by party leaders.
After these two defeats, Vardaman was convinced that the only way he or
any other poor whites could get the nomination was through a direct
primary system. In the fi rst statewide popular primary, the poor
farmers and workers rallied to Vardaman’s campaign and elected
him to the state’s highest offi ce. In 1911, Vardaman was elected
to the U.S. Senate, but he was defeated for reelection in 1918,
and again in 1922. After his second defeat, Vardaman
moved to Alabama.
Above: James K.
Vardaman was known for
his racist rhetoric and fl amboyant appearance,
but as governor, he was more progressive.
220 Chapter 8: Revolt of the Rednecks, 1900-1932
Section 2
James K. Vardaman, “The White Chief”
IntroduceOutlineA. Administration of James K.
Vardaman, 1904-1908
B. The Senatorial Election of 1907
C. The Senatorial Campaign
of 1911
D. World War I
E. Vardaman Defeated
F. Women’s Suff rage
MaterialsTextbook, pages 220-225
Teacher Tech DVD
True-False Worksheet
Lesson Plan
Guided Reading, 8-2mystatehistory.com
Online Textbook
TeachBellringer
Ask students: How do your peers
call attention to themselves?
Using Reading Skills:Vocabulary Enhancement
Write the term fl amboyant on the
overhead or Smart Board. Ask students
what it means to be fl amboyant and
then provide a definition for them.
(showy; tending to make a striking dis-
play) Then have students examine the
photograph on this page. Ask: In what
ways is James K. Vardaman’s appear-
ance fl amboyant? What message is he
trying to send with his attire?
Section 2 Competencies and Objectives
Civil Rights/Human Rights4a. Compare and contrast de facto segregation and de jure
segregation in Mississippi from 1890 to the present, including
the rise of Jim Crow era events and actors (i.e., Ross Barnett,
James Eastland, the integration of University of Mississippi,
Sovereignty Commission, etc.), and their impact on Mississippi’s
history and contemporary society.
4c. Compare and contrast the development and resulting impact of
civil rights movements (e.g., women’s suff rage, African American
T221T221
Administration of James K. Vardaman, 1904-1908
James K. Vardaman, who took the oath of offi ce on January 19, 1904, was
the fi rst governor inaugurated in the New Capitol. In his inaugural address,
Vardaman outlined the aims of his administration and promised reform and
progress, at least for white Mississippians.
Improved Conditions for BlacksBlacks did not suff er as much as might have been expected in view of
Vardaman’s racial theories. In two important situations, conditions for black
people improved under “Th e White Chief.”
First, Vardaman led the fi ght to end the convict lease system, which was
still practiced in various forms even though it had been abolished under
the Constitution of 1890. During his administration, several penal farms
owned and operated by the state were maintained. Th e largest of these was
Parchman Farm in Sunfl ower County, which eventually became the state
penitentiary. Under the supervision of state offi cials, prisoners received
better treatment than under private control. Because most of the convicts
who had suff ered abuses under the old system had been black prisoners,
Vardaman’s reforms worked more to the advantage of blacks than whites.
Th e second important way Vardaman helped blacks was in his fi ght
against “white capping.” In southwest Mississippi, black landowners aroused
the anger of white farmers who were in competition with them for the sale of
farm products. In an eff ort to reduce that competition, white farmers tried
to drive black landowners off their land. Th ese white farmers were known
as white cappers, because they wore white hoods similar to the old Ku Klux
James K. Vardaman is described as being a
huge man with shoulder-length hair.
His limp right arm had been mangled years
before in a corn sheller. While campaigning,
he oft en wore a white linen suit and a black
broad-brim hat.
Section 2: James K. Vardaman, “Th e White Chief” 221
Below: Parchman Farm, offi cially named the Mississippi State Peniten-tiary, was founded in 1901 aft er the convict lease system was abolished. Located in the Delta, the wooded property was completely cleared for agriculture by the inmates.
Using Geography Skills:Political Geography
Project a map of Mississippi onto a
screen or Smart Board. Ask students to
locate Yalobusha County and the city
of Greenwood.
Teacher NoteDown on Parchman Farm: The Great
Prison in the Mississippi Delta, by Wil-
liam Banks Taylor, is a detailed and
readable history of this penal farm.
Using the InternetInvite students to explore the Mis-
sissippi archival collection of photo-
graphs on Parchman Farm as found
at this website: http://mdah.state.
ms.us/arrec/digital_archives/parch
man/.
liberation, Native American citizenship and suff rage,
immigration rights, etc.) in Mississippi.
Key Ideas and Details2. Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or
secondary source; provide an accurate summary of how key
events or ideas develop over the course of the text.
T222T222
Klan. Under the orders of Governor Vardaman, state law enforcement of-
fi cials infi ltrated their organization. Th e evidence these agents accumulated
was turned over to local police, and Vardaman demanded that the guilty
persons be arrested and brought to trial. Th e governor warned local offi cials
that, if they did not stop the terrorists from attacking the black farmers, he
would order the attorney general to press charges against the white cappers.
Vardaman’s eff orts were successful; by the end of his administration, the
white cappers had ceased to exist.
Vardaman’s racial actions were diff erent from his rhetoric. During the
1903 campaign, Vardaman had said that, as a private citizen, he would help
lynch a black man accused or strongly suspected of raping a white woman.
But as governor he said he would do everything within his power
to prevent a lynching (murder by a mob, usually by hanging). On
two occasions, Governor Vardaman sent the National Guard, once
leading them personally, to rescue a black man from a lynch mob.
Laurence C. Jones and the Piney Woods SchoolIn 1908, Laurence C. Jones (1884-1975) graduated from the
University of Iowa. He was off ered a teaching position at Tuskegee
Institute, an historically black college in Alabama that is now Tuske-
gee University. Instead of accepting that prestigious appointment,
Laurence Jones came to Mississippi and established the Piney Woods School in rural Rankin County. He founded the school
with $2, on forty acres that were given to him by a former slave. Th e
fi rst schoolhouse was an abandoned shed that he and his students
repaired and painted. With thousands of alumni, the Piney Woods
School is now an acclaimed educational institution spread out on
two thousand choice acres with lakes, woods, and modern school
buildings. Th e Piney Woods School is the fl agship of the nation’s
four remaining historically African American boarding schools.
Improvements for Poor WhitesMost of Vardaman’s administration was devoted to improving the
economic conditions of poor white farmers and workers. One of the most
important reforms Vardaman supported was a child labor law. In the early
1900s, small children—some as young as eight years old—often worked ten
or twelve hours a day in factories and mills or on farms. Governor Vardaman
called for an immediate halt to this practice. Although he did not secure the
passage of a law prohibiting child labor during his term, a child labor law
was achieved by Vardaman’s successor in 1908. Among the major reforms
passed during Vardaman’s administration were a school textbook com-
mission, separate rural school districts, and a 30 percent teacher pay raise.
Other ReformsIn addition to the reforms he actually accomplished, Vardaman intro-
duced many others that were enacted by his successors. In his farewell
address to the legislature, he recommended legislative reapportionment
Above: Laurence C. Jones founded the Piney Woods School in 1909 to give black students in rural Mississippi the chance of a good education. Itscurriculum, like that of Tuskegee Institute, combined strong academics with practical training in skills that could lead to employment.
222 Chapter 8: Revolt of the Rednecks, 1900-1932
Teacher NoteYou might indicate to students that
James K. Vardaman’s racist rhetoric—
used to win the governorship—clearly
contributed to a belief by white cap-
pers that their lawless acts would go
unpunished.
Did You Know?White capper terror activities were
centered in the Mississippi counties
of Amite, Franklin, and Lincoln. White
cappers attempted to intimidate black
farmers with threatening notices, beat-
ings, shooting into homes, and, on
occasion, murder.
Using the InternetHave students read a short biogra-
phy on Dr. Laurence C. Jones as found
at this website: www.pineywoods.
org/about-us/history-piney-woods-
school. Ask students: What event
aided Dr. Jones’s establishment of
an endowment for the Piney Woods
School? (his appearance on the TV
show This Is Your Life, which resulted
in donations amounting to more than
$700,000)
Notes
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T223T223
Th e 1908 child labor law made it illegal to
hire children under the age of twelve to work in factories. Six years later,
the age limit for girls was changed to four-teen, but the age for
boys was kept at twelve.
and an elected judiciary. He also called for state depositories to reduce the
power of banks, regulation of interest rates and railroad companies, a state
charity hospital, a home for elderly women, an institution for the mentally
ill, and a teachers’ college.
During Vardaman’s four years in offi ce, there were no accusations of
corruption or graft made against him personally or his major appointees. A
northern journalist touring the South shortly after Vardaman’s term expired
wrote that, except for his negative attitudes on race, Governor Vardaman’s
administration was one of the best in the state’s history.
Th e Senatorial Election of 1907In 1907, “Th e White Chief,” while he was still governor, ran for the U.S.
Senate seat held by his cousin, Hernando De Soto Money, who had an-
nounced that he would not seek reelection for the term that would begin
in 1911. Vardaman lost that primary election to John Sharp Williams, who
had represented Mississippi in the U.S. Congress for several years. After his
term as governor expired in 1908, Vardaman remained in the state capital
and edited the Jackson Issue.
Th e Senatorial Campaign of 1911James K. Vardaman and LeRoy Percy were the favorite candidates for the
senatorial primary election in August 1911. Th e winner of the primary would
fi ll the United States Senate term beginning in 1913. Th eodore G. Bilbo, a
rising young star in Mississippi politics, endorsed Vardaman in this election.
As we learned in earlier chapters, politics is one of Mississippi’s favorite
pastimes. Although the primary for the senate seat was set for August 1911,
Above: Th e famous photographer Lewis Hine was a crusader against the use of child labor. He traveled around the country documenting the poor and oft en dangerous conditions children worked in. Th is photo was taken at the Priscilla Knitt ing Mills in Meridian in 1911, three years aft er Mississippi’s child labor law was passed.
Section 2: James K. Vardaman, “Th e White Chief” 223
Using the InternetShare the political cartoon on the
senatorial election of 1907 with your
students as found at this website:
http://mshistorynow.mdah.state.
ms.us/images/640.jpg. Ask students
to interpret the cartoon’s meaning.
DiscussionAsk students: Why did Mississippi
textile mills hire child laborers? Ex-
plain that the answer, in part, was that
child labor was cheaper. In 1896, for
example, child textile workers earned
an average of 31 cents per day—less
than half of the 67 cents daily wage
paid to men.
Notes
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T224T224
stump speeches and political rallies began in the spring of 1910. Vardaman, a
folksy and fl amboyant stump orator, waged an unrelenting personal attack on
Percy, the soft-spoken aristocrat and Delta planter. Class antagonism—bitter-
ness between the rich and the poor—was evident in this ugly campaign. It was
in this contest that the term “redneck” took on a political meaning. During a
speech at Godbold Wells on July 4, 1910, Percy was frequently interrupted
and heckled by Vardaman supporters. Finally, an exasperated Percy shouted
them down and called them a bunch of “cattle” and “rednecks.” Vardaman
followers quickly picked up the term and used it in their campaign speeches
and literature. Vardaman was proud to be identifi ed with white farmers and
laborers who toiled in the fi elds doing an honest day’s work.
Th e 1911 election had the largest voter turnout of any primary election up
to that time. Vardaman defeated Percy by a vote of 79,000 to 21,000. Th eodore
G. Bilbo was elected lieutenant governor, and Vardaman supporters won a
majority in the state legislature. For the next several years, Vardaman’s ma-chine (a highly organized political group) controlled Mississippi politics. His
machine was destined, however, for an early breakdown, and Vardaman was
soon replaced by Bilbo as the state’s most powerful and colorful politician.
World War IIn 1917, Mississippi was preparing to celebrate its centennial (100-year
anniversary) of statehood, but America’s entry into World War I caused the
cancellation of that celebration. Although several military installations were
established in Mississippi, and approximately 56,700 Mississippians served
in the armed forces, World War I had only a temporary impact on the state’s
economy. Most of the new jobs available to Mississippians during the war
were discontinued after the armistice was signed on November 11, 1918.
(An armistice is an agreement to stop fi ghting while coming to terms for
a peace treaty.) Perhaps the most direct impact the war had on Mississippi
politics was the defeat of Senator Vardaman.
Most Mississippians supported America’s participation in the war that
President Woodrow Wilson called the “war to end all wars.” One of Missis-
sippi’s U.S. senators, John Sharp Williams, voted for American involvement in
the war and strongly supported President Wilson. Mississippi’s other senator
did not. James K. Vardaman was one of six U.S. senators to vote against the
declaration of war on April 6, 1917.
Vardaman DefeatedSenator Vardaman, who was up for reelection in 1918, was defeated pri-
marily because he had opposed President Wilson’s wartime policies. After
fi rst criticizing Wilson’s domestic program, which he said off ered too little for
the common man, Vardaman became one of the most outspoken opponents
of Wilson’s military policy before and after World War I. Vardaman not only
voted against the declaration of war, he also voted against the draft. Th e Mis-
sissippi press, which almost unanimously supported America’s entry into
the war, often referred to Vardaman as “Herr von Vardaman,” and accused
him of being worthy of the German Kaiser’s Iron Cross military decoration.
Th e Seventeenth Amendment to the U.S.
Constitution, ratifi ed in 1913, called for the direct election of U.S. senators by a state’s
voters. Before that time, senators were chosen by
a state’s legislature.
Above: Soldiers of the 1st MississippiInfantry, formed in 1916, take a break from their training to pose for a photograph. Opposite page, above: Senator James K. Vardaman is shown in Washington, DC, accompanied by Mississippi congressman Byron “Pat” Harrison (left ) and General Clarence Edwards (right). Harrison would take Vardaman’s seat in 1918 and serve for 22 years. Opposite page, below: Belle Kearny was the fi rst woman elected to the Mississippi State Senate.
224 Chapter 8: Revolt of the Rednecks, 1900-1932
Did You Know?In addition to James K. Vardaman
(Democrat), five other U.S. senators
also voted against America’s entry
into World War I: Asle J. Gronna (Re-
publican from North Dakota), Robert
M. La Follette (Republican from Wis-
consin), Harry Lane (Democrat from
Oregon), George W. Norris (Republican
from Nebraska), and William J. Stone
(Democrat from Missouri).
Using the InternetHave students read a biography of
James K. Vardaman as found at this web-
site: www.pbs.org/wgbh/american
experience/features/biography/
flood-vardaman/. Ask students to
note fi ve facts they learned from read-
ing this article.
Notes
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T225T225
During Vardaman’s reelection
campaign in 1918, President Wilson
addressed a letter to the senator’s
opponents expressing his desire to
see Vardaman defeated. President
Wilson’s letter was published in
many Mississippi newspapers and
helped Congressman Byron Pat-
ton Harrison defeat Vardaman by
almost 13,000 votes. After he was
defeated again in 1922, Vardaman
moved to Alabama, where he lived
until his death on June 25, 1930.
Th e town of Vardaman in Calhoun
County is named in honor of James
K. Vardaman.
Women’s Suff rageAlthough America was one of
the world’s great democracies, the U.S. Constitution did not allow women
to vote or hold public offi ce until 1920. Strong public support for women’s suff rage (women’s right to vote) began with the 1848 Seneca Falls, New
York, Convention. Th ree Mississippi women—Ida B. Wells, Belle Kearney,
and Nellie Nugent—were active in the women’s suff rage movement. One
of the most important and enduring changes in American history came in
1920 with the ratifi cation of the Nineteenth Amendment extending the fran-chise (right to vote) to women. With their newly won right to vote, women
refreshed American democracy and brought an earnestness to politics and
public policy that the nation had not known before.
Mrs. Th eodore G. Bilbo, who actively campaigned for her husband in
his early races, may have been the fi rst woman in Mississippi to participate
in the political process. In the fi rst state election after the passage of the
Nineteenth Amendment, Belle Kearney of Flora was elected to the Missis-
sippi Senate, and Nellie Nugent of Greenville was elected to the Mississippi
House of Representatives.
Reviewing the Section
1. Defi ne in sentence form: lynching, centennial, women’s suff rage.2. Why was a child labor law such a needed reform
in the early 1900s? 3. Why was James K. Vardaman defeated in his U.S.
Senate reelection campaign of 1918?
Mississippi was the last state to ratify the
Nineteenth Amendment. It did not do so until 1948.
Section 2: James K. Vardaman, “Th e White Chief” 225
Using the InternetHave students read an article about
the women’s suff rage movement in
Mississippi as found at this website:
http://mshistory.k12.ms.us/articles
/245/mississippi-women-and-the-
woman-suff rage-amendment.
EngagementPair students and have them create
posters in support of or opposition to
the Nineteenth Amendment simulat-
ing the historical debate of the time.
Assess
Answers to “Reviewing the Section”1. Lynching is murder by a mob,
usually by hanging. A centennial
is a 100-year anniversary.
Women’s suff rage is women’s
right to vote.
2. In the early 1900s, small chil-
dren—some as young as eight
years old—often worked ten or
twelve hours a day in factories
and mills or on farms.
3. He was defeated primarily
because he had opposed
President Woodrow Wilson’s
wartime policies.
Notes
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T226T226
As you read, look for• the colorful political campaigns of Th eodore G.
Bilbo;• the positive and negative impacts of Bilbo’s
terms as lieutenant governor and governor;• the progressive leadership of Governor Henry L.
Whitf ield; • the eff ect of the Great Migration on Mississippi’s
population;• Bilbo’s years in the U.S. Senate;• terms: bribe, protégé, property assessment,
dipping, Great Migration.
Although he was only fi ve feet and two inches tall,Governor Th eodore G. Bilbo is a towering fi gure in Mis-
sissippi history. From 1907 to 1947, Bilbo, who was often
referred to as “Th e Man” by friends and foes alike, was one
of Mississippi’s most illustrious and controversial politi-
cians. His long career was punctuated by scandals and
bribery, by victories and defeats. Probably no other Mis-
sissippi public fi gure could elicit such unqualifi ed loyalty
on the one hand and such bitter opposition on the other.
Early LifeTh e youngest of several children, Bilbo was born at
Juniper Grove in Pearl River County on October 13,
1877. His father was a small farmer who later became
the president of a small town bank at Poplarville. Bilbo
entered high school at fi fteen and graduated four years
later in 1896. Although he was “authorized” by the Baptist
denomination to preach, as he often did, he decided not
to become an ordained minister. After attending George
Peabody College in Nashville, Tennessee, he taught school
in south Mississippi.
Below: Th eodore G. Bilbo, from Juniper Grove in Pearl River County, started his career as a schoolteacher. He went on to become one of the most colorful and infl uential politicians inMississippi history, serving as a state senator, lieutenant governor, two-term governor, and three-term U.S. senator. Always controversial, he was charged with bribery early in his career, and was under investigation by the U.S. Senate when he died in 1947.
226 Chapter 8: Revolt of the Rednecks, 1900-1932
Section 3
“The Man” Bilbo
Introduce
OutlineA. Early Life
B. State Senator Bilbo
C. Lieutenant Governor Bilbo
D. Bilbo and Bribery Charges
E. Governor Bilbo’s First
Administration, 1916-1920
F. Administration of Henry L.
Whitfi eld, 1924-1927
G. The Great Migration
H. Governor Bilbo’s Second
Administration, 1928-1932
I. Bilbo’s Senatorial Career
MaterialsTextbook, pages 226-233
Teacher Tech DVD
Lesson Plan
Guided Reading, 8-3mystatehistory.com
Online Textbook
TeachBellringer
Ask students: What does the moni-
ker (nickname) “The Man” suggest
about Theodore G. Bilbo? Section 3 Competencies and Objectives
Civil Rights/Human Rights4a. See page 220
Economics5a. Identify and analyze the economic development over time of
major industries in Mississippi (including but not limited to
agricultural production, manufacturing, rise of machines, boll
weevil, development of natural resources, international
investments, the Great Migration, etc.).
T227T227
His fi rst political campaign was in 1903, when he ran for cir-
cuit clerk of Pearl River County against a one-armed Confederate
veteran. When he was told that he lost the election by fi fty-six
votes, he replied, “You know, I could see that empty sleeve myself
when I went into the booth to vote.” He then added, “I started to
vote for him myself.” After this defeat, Bilbo taught for two years
at a boarding school in Wiggins.
State Senator BilboIn 1907, Bilbo returned to Poplarville to run for the Mis-
sissippi Senate. After winning that election, Bilbo took the bar
examination and was admitted to the practice of law. When
he entered the Senate chamber for the fi rst time, Bilbo told a
friend, “Th is is my world, and [I am] going to conquer it.” Bilbo
was very ambitious; within two years, his name would become
a household word throughout Mississippi.
During a special session of the Mississippi Senate to fi ll a
vacancy in the U.S. Senate caused by the death of Anselm J.
McLaurin, Bilbo became as famous as the two men seeking
the senate seat. Bilbo accused the supporters of LeRoy Percy of
paying him a $645 bribe to vote for Percy, who, in the end, won
the election and served from 1910-1913. A bribe is money or a
favor given or promised in order to infl uence a person in a position of trust.
Instead of bringing charges against Percy and his supporters for off ering the
bribe, the Senate formally charged Bilbo with accepting a bribe. A resolution
to expel Bilbo fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for his
expulsion. However, a resolution asking him to resign because he was “un-
fi t to sit with honest, upright men” passed by a vote of twenty-fi ve to one.
Claiming that he had been framed, Bilbo refused to resign and vowed to
take his case directly to the people and let them decide his political future.
Lieutenant Governor BilboAfter the Mississippi Senate reprimanded him, Bilbo entered the race for
lieutenant governor in 1911. Running as a martyred victim of the aristocracy
that had tried to bribe him, Bilbo campaigned with his characteristic fury.
Th e 1911 campaign was one of the most exciting contests in Mississippi’s
stormy political history. Class antagonism was the keynote of the campaign.
“Th e fi ght between the classes and the masses is on,” Bilbo announced.
Th roughout the campaign, Bilbo not only wore a red necktie, he also wore
red suspenders. When asked why he wore both, Bilbo replied, “Th e red
suspenders keep up my pants, and the red necktie keeps up my courage.”
On some occasions, the political struggle actually became a physical
struggle. When an opponent made some derogatory remarks about Bilbo,
“Th e Man” leaped up on the platform and physically assaulted the speaker.
Th is incident was only one of several situations in which Bilbo was involved in
a physical as well as a political confrontation. In a speech in east Mississippi,
Bilbo referred to Washington D. Gibbs of Yazoo City as “Old Wash Gibbs, a
Above: In 1910, LeRoy Percy, a wealthy planter from Greenville, ran against James K. Vardaman to fi ll the U.S. Senate seat of Anselm McLaurin. Percy won, but following the election, Th eodore Bilbo claimed that Percy supporters had bribed him. Bilbo was charged with accepting a bribe.
Section 3: “Th e Man” Bilbo 227
Using Reading Skills: Vocabulary Enhancement
Write the term demagogue on the
overhead or Smart Board. Ask students
what it means to be a demagogue, and
then provide a defi nition for them. (a
person who appeals to the emotions
and prejudices of people to arouse dis-
content and advance his or her own
political purposes) Ask students to read
this page of the textbook and fi nd an
example of this type of appeal.
Using Reading Skills:Interpreting Quotations
Ask students: What did Theodore
Bilbo mean when he said, “The fi ght
between the classes and the masses
is on.” Who was Bilbo appealing to by
making this statement?
Using the InternetAsk students to read an article about
LeRoy Percy as found at this web-
site: www.pbs.org/wgbh/american
experience/features/biography/
fl ood-leroy/. Ask students: How did
his views and actions regarding issues
of race contrast with those of James K.
Vardaman and Theodore Bilbo?
Key Ideas and Details2. Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or
secondary source; provide an accurate summary of how key
events or ideas develop over the course of the text.
Craft and Structure4. Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used
in a text, including vocabulary describing political, social, or
economic aspects of history/social studies.
Integration of Knowledge and Ideas9. Compare and contrast treatments of the same topic in several
primary and secondary sources.
T228T228
As lieutenant governor,Bilbo became the
presiding offi cer of the Mississippi Senate,
which a year earlier had declared him unfi t
to sit among honest and upright men.
renegade Confederate soldier.” When Bilbo later spoke in Yazoo City, Gibbs
walked up to Bilbo and, without warning, hit “Th e Man” in the head with a
walking stick. Known among his friends as the “War Horse of Yazoo,” Gibbs
hit Bilbo so hard that he broke the walking stick. Bilbo fell semiconscious
to the gutter. After lying there for a few minutes, “Bilbo deguttered himself
and made a quick pass at Gibbs, missing the ‘war horse’ completely.” Gibbs
off ered to continue the fi ght, but Bilbo declined, stating he had a speaking
engagement in Belzoni. When the election fi nally took place, Bilbo won by
23,000 votes.
Bilbo and Bribery ChargesTo investigate corruption among state offi cials, Mattie Plunkett, the
state librarian, also acted as an undercover agent. Miss Plunkett hid a re-
cording machine in the law library in the state capitol building. Bilbo and
his law partner, G. A. Hobbs, were among the
offi cials whose conversations were recorded
by the unsuspected lady detective. On the
evidence recorded by Miss Plunkett, they
were indicted and tried for accepting a $2,000
bribe from a Delta businessman who wanted
their help in establishing a new county in the
Delta. Although both Bilbo and Hobbs were
eventually acquitted, this episode led Bilbo to
again seek vindication from the people. He
announced that he would run for governor
in 1915.
Governor Bilbo’s First Administration, 1916-1920
Political factionalism and bitterness reached
an all-time high during the 1915 campaign.
Fred Sullens, the editor of the Jackson Daily News, said that, if Bilbo were elected gover-
nor, the eagle on the dome of the state capitol
should be taken down and replaced by a buz-
zard. In spite of this opposition from one of the
state’s best known and most powerful editors,
Bilbo defeated four other candidates in the
fi rst primary. Lee Russell, a Bilbo protégé (a
person being trained by a more experienced person), was elected lieutenant
governor and succeeded Bilbo to the governorship in 1920.
Governor Bilbo inherited a $1 million defi cit. To pay off the state debt,
Bilbo recommended an equalization of property assessments. A property assessment is an offi cial valuation of property for tax purposes. When he
took offi ce, real estate was assessed at only 25 or 30 percent of its actual
value. Bilbo recommended that all property be assessed at its actual value.
Above: Midway through his fi rst term as governor, Bilbo ran for the U.S. House of Representatives. He lost to Paul Johnson Sr., who gave speeches accompanied by the sound of cowbells to remind voters that Bilbo had signed an unpopular livestock dipping law.
228 Chapter 8: Revolt of the Rednecks, 1900-1932
Did You Know?Theodore Bilbo had a disdain for
soft drinks and all things cola-related,
so he introduced a bill in the Missis-
sippi state legislature that read as
follows: “…forbid the manufacture,
sale, barter, or giving away of coca
cola, afri cola, ala cola, caffi cola, carre
cola, celery cola, chan cola, chera cola,
coca beta, Pilsbury colke, cola coke,
cream cola, dope, four cola, hayo cola,
Heck’s cola, Kaye cola, koca nola, loke,
kola ade, kola kola, kola phos, doloko,
dos dola, lime kola, mellow nip, nerve
ola, revive ola, rocola, tye ola, standard
cola, toko tona, tokola, vim-o, french
wine of coca wise ola.”
Using Reading Skills:Organizing Information
While reading about the career of
Theodore Bilbo, ask students to make
a list of the physical altercations and
ethical issues that checkered his career.
Notes
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T229T229
Bilbo’s signature on the 1916 livestock dipping law was one of the key factors in his defeat in
the 1918 congressional race. Mississippi farmers considered it a danger-
ous nuisance to drive their animals to public
vats every two weeks and immerse them in arsenic.
He wanted the wealthy property owners to pay higher taxes and the poor to
pay lower taxes. Th is new tax plan was enacted by the legislature and allowed
the state to balance its budget for the fi rst time in many years.
Educational reforms would naturally be of interest to an ex-teacher.
Governor Bilbo considered the governor to be head of the public school
system in the same way that he was head of the state militia. He took several
educators on a tour of northern schools to fi nd new methods that could be
used to modernize Mississippi’s school system.
Additional reforms accomplished during Bilbo’s fi rst term included a
board of pardons, a state highway department, an expanded public health
program, and a livestock dipping law. Dipping is immersing animals in a
solution to eradicate disease by killing bacteria or parasites.
In 1918, the young and ambitious Bilbo ran for the U.S. House of Rep-
resentatives but lost to Paul B. Johnson Sr. However, his defeat was not as
crucial as Vardaman’s loss in the U.S. Senate race. Vardaman not only lost
that election, he also lost his position as the leader of Mississippi rednecks.
Th eodore G. Bilbo was the champion of the rednecks after 1918.
Administration of Henry L. Whitf ield, 1924-1927
In 1923, women in Mississippi voted in a
gubernatorial (pertaining to the governor) cam-
paign for the fi rst time. Th eir vote undoubtedly
gave Henry L. Whitfi eld, the former president of
Mississippi State College for Women, his narrow
margin of victory over Th eodore Bilbo. After
taking offi ce, Governor Whitfi eld embraced a
broad agenda that included better mental health
care, expansion of vocational training, attracting
industry to Mississippi, and improvement in the
quality of life for Mississippi blacks. Whitfi eld’s
moderate position on race received a generally
favorable response and even praise from some of
the state’s leading newspapers. Th e Committee
of One Hundred, an organization of prominent
Mississippi black men, also praised Governor
Whitfi eld for his racial concern.
After taking offi ce, Governor Whitfi eld es-
tablished a state-sponsored program to attract
industry to Mississippi. New industry, Whitfi eld
said, was the only means of providing employ-
ment to farmers who were no longer able to
make a living from their exhausted and eroded
small farms. Th ough his success was modest, a later administration would
revive and expand upon Whitfi eld’s initial eff orts to balance agriculture with
industry. Governor Whitfi eld’s progressive leadership was unfortunately
shortened by his death in 1927.
Above: Henry L. Whitf ield defeated Bilbo in 1923 with help from women, who were voting in a Mississippi governor’s race for the fi rst time.
Section 3: “Th e Man” Bilbo 229
Did You Know?In addition to serving as the presi-
dent of Mississippi State College for
Women, Henry L. Whitfield taught
school for several years, and he was a
school principal for nine years.
Developing Writing Skills The “Know Mississippi Better Train”
was inaugurated during Governor
Whitfield’s administration. As the
name suggests, the train made an an-
nual trip, lasting ten to fourteen days,
promoting interest in Mississippi. The
train carried promotional literature,
exhibits, and souvenirs. Also, every
mayor and governor on the route
was presented with a fi ne Mississippi-
grown watermelon. The “Know Missis-
sippi Better Train” also transported 150
to 200 prominent Mississippians who
were ready, willing, and able to speak
well of the resources and opportuni-
ties available in the state. Each Missis-
sippi county selected two citizens to
make the trip.
Ask students to write a letter apply-
ing to be selected as one of the two
county representatives on the train.
Student letters should include their
qualifi cations for this honor and the
positive comments they would make
about Mississippi.
Using ArtHave students make a poster ad-
vertising the upcoming arrival of the
“Know Mississippi Better Train” in your
town. They should include the date of
its arrival, information about the train,
and pictures that entice the viewer to
come on board.
Notes
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T230T230
Th e Great MigrationIn the 1920s, farm tenancy and
rural poverty were on the rise, and
racial violence showed a correspond-
ing increase. Th e old Ku Klux Klan
was revived, and public lynchings
became a national disgrace. Th e ra-
cial brutality and mob violence that
Governor Whitfield condemned
in his inaugural address were so
widespread in Mississippi that a
group of lawyers published a book
titled Mississippi and the Mob. Th e
purpose of the book was to persuade
all Mississippians that mob violence
must be stopped. Lawyers, educa-
tors, doctors, politicians, and even
schoolchildren were called upon to
do what they could to discourage
lynching. Law enforcement authori-
ties were especially urged to arrest
individuals who participated in mob
violence. Th e Klan was also accosted
and condemned by the Mississippi
Council of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching.
After World War I, Mississippi’s black population began a long period
of decline that historians call the Great Migration. In the early years of the
Great Migration, an estimated 150,000 African Americans left Mississippi
between 1910 and 1920. From 1920 to 1940, another 150,000 migrated to
northern states. Th e Chicago Defender, a popular black newspaper in that
city, lured many black Mississippians to Chicago, calling it the “promised
land.” Th e second wave of the Great Migration occurred from 1940 to 1970.
During and immediately after World War II, from 1940 to 1950, more than
300,000 black Mississippians migrated to northern cities in search of jobs
and a better life. Some historians have estimated that as many as 5 million
blacks may have left the fi elds and farms of the Deep South during the Great
Migration. In the 1960s, with the passage of the civil rights legislation, the
outmigration began to decline. By the early 1970s, the Great Migration
from Mississippi had ended, and the state’s black population increased from
815,770 in 1970 to 1,098,385 in 2010.
White offi cials and businessmen, especially Delta planters, discouraged
the migration because it created a labor shortage. Th ey often took drastic
measures to keep blacks in the state, in the fi elds, and in virtual bondage.
In Greenville, policemen would board the outbound trains and physically
force blacks off the train and back to the fi elds. In Hattiesburg and Jackson,
authorities arrested blacks who tried to buy train tickets. In some cities, rail-
road offi cials would sidetrack the cars with black passengers and make them
Map Skill: Which states contain the fi ve cities where most blacks moved?
230 Chapter 8: Revolt of the Rednecks, 1900-1932
Answer to Map 39 SkillMissouri, Illinois, Michigan, Indiana,
and Ohio
DiscussionAsk students: How many of you
have lived in the same home your
entire life? The same town? County?
State? Why do people move or relo-
cate?
Diverse Learners Place your class in heterogeneous
groups of three or four students. Ask
each group to list the advantages and
disadvantages of leaving Mississippi
in the Great Migration to the North.
Next, have students read about the
journey northward as found at this
website: www.inmotionaame.org/
migrations/topic.cfm?migration=8
&topic=4&tab=image. Finally, have
each group decide whether or not
they will migrate, while providing the
most important consideration for their
decision. Ask student groups to share
their decision with the class.
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T231T231
get off the train. Such unlawful tactics only made blacks more determined
to leave the state and seek freedom in the North.
In some rare cases, black leaders used the threat of migration to improve
their working conditions. When a local school offi cial told LeRoy Percy, the
Delta planter, that blacks were more likely to remain in the Delta if racial
violence and intimidation were eliminated, Percy persuaded other whites to
support his eff ort to drive the Klan out of Greenville and the Delta.
Black organizations like the Committee of One Hundred—which included
black ministers, businessmen, and educators—convinced friendly whites to
improve the lives of black Mississippians as a means of keeping more blacks
from joining the Great Migration. Under the leadership of Jonas Edward
Johnson, the Committee of One Hundred persuaded the all-white College
Board to expand the Alcorn A&M curriculum so blacks would not have to
go out of state for a collegiate education.
In spite of all that black leaders and a few
friendly whites could do, the social and economic
conditions of black Mississippians did not im-
prove, and the Great Migration continued and
even increased after World War II. With the
passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the
Voting Rights Act of 1965, Mississippi began to
change. Th e Great Migration slowed and even-
tually came to an end. Many of the blacks who
moved north began to come back home, and by
the early 1970s the Great Migration had ended.
Since then, Mississippi’s population has steadily
increased to 2,967,297 in 2010.
One of Mississippi’s best known and most
highly regarded African Americans who joined
the Great Migration was Richard Wright, perhaps
America’s foremost black writer. Isabel Wilker-
son, in her recent book, Th e Warmth of Other Suns: Th e Epic Story of America’s Great Migration
(2010), quotes Richard Wright, who said that he
left the South to feel “the warmth of other suns.”
Governor Bilbo’s Second Administration, 1928-1932
In 1927, Bilbo made his third race for governor.
Bilbo’s campaign, and those of all other politi-
cians, were hampered by the devastation caused by the Great Flood of 1927.
Bilbo and most politicians promised, if elected, to improve the levee system
and prevent similar catastrophes in the future. His platform also called for
the establishment of a state-owned printing press to supply free textbooks
for public schools and a comprehensive highway program at a projected
cost of $82 million. He called for the merger of Mississippi A&M and Th e
University of Mississippi into one university to be located at Jackson. Bilbo
Above: Th eodore Bilbo’s second term was less successful than his fi rst, as a number of the reforms he proposed,including free textbooks and consoli-dation of the state’s university system, failed to pass. Th is portrait of Bilbo hangs in the Mississippi state capitol.
Section 3: “Th e Man” Bilbo 231
DiscussionHow did black organizations use
the exodus to improve conditions for
black Mississippians?
Looking AheadStudents will learn much more
about Richard Wright in Chapter 15:
Mississippi’s Literary Tradition.
Using Reading Skills:Organizing Information
Instruct students to read about
Governor Bilbo’s second term as gov-
ernor. Then, ask students to list Bilbo’s
proposals that failed to win support in
the state legislature.
Notes
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T232T232
Above: Governor Bilbo, third from the left , welcomes a group of visitors to his offi ce in the New Capitol. Th e Great Depression had taken hold by the end of his second term, ruining the state’s economy.
was elected by a majority of 16,500 votes. His free textbook proposal was
not enacted, and his highway program was eventually abandoned during
the Great Depression of the 1930s. Th e most controversial aspect of Bilbo’s
second administration was the crisis involving the state institutions of higher
learning. Th ere was such strong opposition to his plans to consolidate some
colleges and move Th e University of Mississippi to Jackson that Bilbo even-
tually abandoned them.
Governor Bilbo’s second administration commenced just as the Great
Depression was beginning. It ended as the nation’s economy reached the
deepest decline in American history, and Bilbo was unable to prevent the
state’s fi nancial ruin. When Bilbo left offi ce in 1932, he was disheartened,
and many believed that his political career was at an end. Th e economic
depression was at its depth in Mississippi. Th e Mississippi press recorded
Bilbo’s political demise, and Fred Sullens printed this epitaph:
Beneath this stone old Th eo lies;Nobody laughs and nobody cries;Where he’s gone or how he fares;Nobody knows, and nobody cares.
Bilbo’s Senatorial CareerLike the sea that gives life and is unruly, Mississippi politics can also be
unpredictable. In 1934, Bilbo ran for the U.S. Senate and was elected. He
was reelected in 1940 and again in 1946. Most of his energy in the Senate
AbAbAbAAAAAbAbAbAbAbAbbAbAbAbovovovoovovovoovovove:e:e:e:ee:e:e:e: GoGGGGGoGoGGoGoGoveevevevevernrnrnrnrnrnorororororor BBBBBBBililililililililbbbbobobobobo,, , ththhththtththiririrddd ffrfromomomom tttthhhheehehe left welcomes a group of visitors to
wawawawassss s lelelelelececececttetetetteddddddd bbbbbybybyby aaaa mmmmm jjjajajajajororororitttttttitttitittttityyyyyyyyyyy fffffffffoffofofofofofoffofoff 111111111111111116666666666666,6,6,6,6,6,50505050505000505050505050505050500000000000000000 vovovovovovvvovovvottetetetess.s.ss. HHHHHHiisisisis ffffffffffffffffffrererrerererereereeeeeeeeeeee tttttttetetetetetetetetete tttttxttxtxtxtxtxtxtxtxtxtxtbbbbbbbobbobobobobobobobobobo kkkkkkkkkkokokkokokokkokokkok pppppppppprororororororororooropopoopopoppopopopoposasasasaasasaasallllllllllllllll wawawawawawawawasssssssss
t t d d hi highh t llll bb dd dd dd i
232 Chapter 8: Revolt of the Rednecks, 1900-1932
Using Reading Skills:Interpreting Quotations
Ask students: What does Fred Sul-
lens ’s epitaph suggest about Missis-
sippian attitudes toward Theodore
Bilbo at that time? Why do they think
his political fortunes changed for the
better?
Did You Know?In 1946, Theodore Biblo won reelec-
tion to a third term in the U.S. Senate
by winning 76 of 82 counties in the
Democratic primary.
Notes
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T233T233
was expended in opposing civil rights
bills, antilynching laws, and the Fair
Employment Practices Commission.
In 1947, the U.S. Senate took steps to
deny Bilbo his seat on the grounds that
large numbers of Mississippi blacks had
been denied the right to vote in the 1946
senatorial election.
Th ere were other charges also pend-
ing against Bilbo. During World War II,
Bilbo had made some expensive repairs
and improvements on his twenty-three-
room mansion at Poplarville. Much of
the work had been done by government
contractors who were building Keesler
Field at nearby Biloxi. Several Missis-
sippi newspapers reported that the work
was done without charge and in viola-
tion of federal laws prohibiting public
offi cials from doing personal business
with wartime contractors. The U.S.
Senate was already investigating these
charges when the question of Bilbo’s
right to take offi ce became an issue in
1947. Senator Bilbo became ill, however,
and the Senate postponed any action
until he could return to Washington to
defend himself against those charges.
Bilbo did not recover; he died in New
Orleans on August 21, 1947.
Th e bells that tolled the death of Bilbo also sounded for the rednecks.
He was the last of his kind, the end of an era. Th e redneck faction of the
Democratic Party had already lost control to a new breed of Mississippi
politicians. A new period of confl ict and change had begun. We will study
that era in the following chapter.
Reviewing the Section
1. Defi ne in sentence form: bribe, protégé, Great Migration.2. What resulted from Matt ie Plunkett ’s secret
recordings in the Mississippi law library?3. Why did the U.S. Senate take steps to deny
Th eodore G. Bilbo his Senate seat in 1947?
Above: Bilbo found new political life by winning a seat in the U.S. Senate in1934. He used this national forum to give voice to his views on white suprem-acy, which were extreme, even by the standards of the day. He proposed deporting all blacks to Africa to ease unemployment, and made public his membership in the Ku Klux Klan. He also carried on a feud with Mississippi’s other senator, Pat Harrison, who refused to even speak to him.
Section 3: “Th e Man” Bilbo 233
Did You Know?Theodore Bilbo revealed his old Ku
Klux Klan membership on the radio
program, Meet the Press.
Did You Know?Theodore Bilbo died of throat can-
cer in 1947 before beginning his third
term in the U.S. Senate.
AssessAnswers to “Reviewing the Section”1. A bribe is money or a favor given
or promised in order to infl uence
a person in a position of trust. A
protégé is a person being trained
by a more experienced person.
The Great Migration was a
period, beginning in the 1920s,
when thousands of black Missis-
sippians migrated from Mississippi
to northern states in search of jobs
and a better life.
2. Lieutenant Governor Bilbo and
his law partner, G. A. Hobbs, were
indicted and tried for accepting a
$2,000 bribe from a Delta busi-
nessman who wanted their help
in establishing a new county in
the Delta. Both were eventually
acquitted of the crime.
3. They did it on the grounds that
large numbers of Mississippi blacks
had been denied the right to vote
in the 1946 senatorial election.
Notes
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T234T234
Chapter Summary
Section 1 Th e New Mississippi• Andrew H. Longino, the last governor picked by
rulers of the state Democratic Party, att racted new industry.
• Between 1900 and 1918, Jackson grew rapidly; in 1903, the New Capitol was dedicated.
• Th e 1902 direct primary law allowed party members to vote directly for candidates.
• Democrats turned the direct primary into a white or popular primary.
• By promising to keep blacks “in their place” and att acking big business, banks, and railroads, James K. Vardaman won the governorship in 1903.
Section 2 James K. Vardaman, “Th e White Chief”
• Despite his rhetoric, Vardaman actually helped blacks by ending the convict lease system and fi ghting against “white capping.”
• In 1908, Laurence C. Jones established the Piney Woods School.
• In 1911, Vardaman defeated LeRoy Percy in a U.S. Senate race. During this race, the term “redneck” took on political meaning.
• Because he opposed America’s involvement in World War I, Vardaman lost the 1918 U.S. Senate election. He was defeated again in 1922.
• In 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment gave voting rights to women.
Section 3 “Th e Man” Bilbo• In 1907, Th eodore G. Bilbo was elected to the
state Senate.• During a special state Senate session, Bilbo was
accused of accepting a bribe and was almost expelled from the state Senate.
• In his successful 1911 run for lieutenant gover-nor, Bilbo wore a red necktie and suspenders.
• Bilbo was accused of bribery again, but he and his law partner were later acquitt ed.
• Bilbo won the governorship in 1915; he balanced the state budget by equalizing property assessments.
• Bilbo’s accomplishments included educational reforms and establishment of a board of pardons, highway department, expanded public health program, and livestock dipping law.
• Bilbo was defeated in a 1918 congressional race and lost to Henry L. Whitf ield in the 1923 governor’s race.
• Governor Whitf ield promoted bett er mental health care, expansion of vocational training, att racting industry, and improvements for blacks.
• In the 1920s, racial violence increased with the revival of the Ku Klux Klan and public lynchings.
• Aft er World War I, Mississippi’s black population declined with the Great Migration. Th ere was another wave of migration from 1940 to 1970.
• In 1927, Bilbo won the governorship shortly aft er the Great Flood and just as the Great Depression was beginning. He couldn’t prevent the state’s fi nancial ruin, and many thought his political career was over.
• Bilbo was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1934, 1940, and 1946. He opposed civil rights bills, antilynching laws, and fair employment practices.
• In 1946, the Senate tried to deny Bilbo his seat because many blacks had been denied the right to vote. Th ere was also a scandal involving improvements to his mansion. He died before he could defend himself against these charges.
234 Chapter 8: Revolt of the Rednecks, 1900-1932
Chapter Review
Reviewing the ContentPlace students in groups of three
students and assign each section of
the chapter to two groups. Ask the stu-
dent groups to take the review state-
ments and turn them into questions.
WorksheetsChapter 8 Vocabulary Worksheet
can be used as a review for this chapter.
Activities for Learning
Understanding the Facts1. Tax exemptions were off ered to
new industries.
2. by state and local Democratic con-
ventions or executive committees;
direct primary
3. blacks, the wealthy, big business,
banks, and the railroads
4. Laurence C. Jones; to give black
students the chance of a good
education
5. The reforms included a law pro-
hibiting child labor, a school text-
book commission, separate rural
school districts, and a 30 percent
teacher pay raise.
6. Nellie Nugent; Belle Kearney
7. state senator, lieutenant governor,
governor, and U.S. senator
8. Henry L. Whitfi eld
9. Blacks were arrested for buying
train tickets, and black passengers
were forced off trains.
Developing Critical Thinking1. Vardaman used vile racist rheto-
ric promising to keep blacks “in
their place,” but he ended the
convict lease system, which af-
Notes
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T235T235
Chapter Review 235
Activities for Learning
Understanding the Facts1. How did Governor Longino and the legislature
att ract new industry to the state?
2. Prior to 1902, how did the Democratic Party select candidates for public offi ce? What new method was adopted?
3. What groups and entities did James K. Vardaman att ack during his 1903 campaign?
4. Who founded the Piney Woods School? What was its purpose?
5. What reforms proposed by Governor Vardaman were intended to improve the condition of poor white farmers and workers?
6. Who was the fi rst woman elected to the Mississippi House of Representatives? Th e Mississippi Senate?
7. List the offi ces Th eodore G. Bilbo held during his political career.
8. Who pursued a progressive agenda during his term as governor?
9. What methods were used to discourage migration from Mississippi?
Developing Critical Th inking1. How did James K. Vardaman’s racist talk
contrast with his term as governor?
2. Why would Fred Sullens of the Jackson Daily News say that if Th eodore G. Bilbo were elected governor, the eagle on the top of the state capi-tol dome should be replaced with a buzzard?
Writing across the Curriculum1. Write a report or prepare a presentation on the
extraordinary life of Holt Collier—the Civil War veteran, cowboy, and bear hunter mentioned in this chapter.
2. Bukka White, a Mississippi blues musician, served a three-year prison sentence at Parch-man Farm. A verse from Parchman Farm Blues, one of White’s most famous songs, is below:
You go to work in the mornin’, just the dawn of day, just the dawn of day.
Go to work in the mornin’, just at the dawn of day.And at the sett in’ of the sun that is when your
work is done.Now, listen you men: I don’t mean no harm, I don’t
mean no harm.Now, listen. You men. I don’t mean no harm.If you wanna do good you better stay off old
Parchman’s Farm.
Review page 221 and write your own lyrics about Parchman Farm.
Exploring Mississippi on the InternetGo to www.digitaldocsinabox.org/images/
LewisHine/duncanfamily.html. Examine and write a caption for this photograph
of a family involved with child labor.
Building 21st-Century Skills: Recognizing Push and Pull Factors
When a large number of people move from one region to another, historians oft en look for push and pull factors that contributed to this migration. Push factors are conditions that led people to leave a certain area (e.g., war or disease). Pull factors are conditions that att racted people to a certain area (e.g., fertile land or freedom).
Review the Great Migration in this chapter and in other sources. Identify the push and pull factors that led to this movement.
fected blacks disproportionately;
stopped white capper attacks on
black farmers; and took steps to
prevent lynchings.
2. A buzzard symbolizes those
things that are ignoble (immoral,
dishonorable). Sullens associated
Bilbo with a buzzard because of
Bilbo’s involvement in two bribery
scandals.
Writing across the Curriculum1. Check students’ reports or presen-
tations.
2. Check students’ lyrics.
Exploring Mississippi on the Internet
Answers will vary.
Building 21st-Century Skills:Recognizing Push and Pull Factors
Push factors include increases in
farm tenancy, rural poverty, and racial
violence.
Pull factors include jobs and a bet-
ter life.
Notes
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