CHAPTER 8

Philosophical Positions of the Body and the Development of Physical Education: Contributions of the Germans, Swedes, and Danes in

Nineteenth-Century Europe

Mechikoff, R.A., A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fifth Edition © 2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Introduction

Discuss parameters of idealismShow impact of idealism on body and physical

educationHistorical role of education during 18th

century, including rise of physical education

Idealism

Traced back to work of Socrates and PlatoHas “competed” with naturalism since

antiquityNaturalism—all events share same character

Can be explained as a process inherent in nature

Idealism and its view of the body are very significant to physical education

Idealism

Idealists focus on three specific topics: The existence of God The self Knowledge

Three components of idealism make up the fabric of metaphysical inquiry God, self, and the question, “how do I come to

know?”Components are not limited to idealism, but

form the basis for all philosophy

Idealism

Idealists believe that entire universe is that which can be conceived or imagined by the mind

What the mind or spirit experiences and perceives as real is essential and authentic The world of material objects is secondary

to the “reality” conceived by the mind The actual world is imperfect Our mind is able to conceive of a perfect

world, which also must exist and is real

Idealism

Use of logic is essential to make idealism work Example: Reality is mind All ideas are conceived by the mind Anything conceived by mind in all probability exists Therefore, any idea conceived by mind exists

The mind is composed of a spiritual quality Ultimate reality is beyond sensory and material

worldTwo different philosophical views in idealism:

Metaphysical and epistemological

Metaphysical Idealism

Analyzes universe as a psychic or mental reality

All “things” that exist in the universe are linked by an ideal element (logically deduced)

Plato, St. Augustine, and even Aristotle believed in metaphysical idealism

Facts or evidence are obtained through deductive and subjective logic

Skeptics of metaphysical idealism will argue against this subjective logic later

Epistemological Idealism

Approaches the study and actual “identification” of reality with mentally knowable data which are perceptible truths

Despite what might be “out there” beyond our mind, all we can know is what is in our minds

Idealism and the Self

Refer back to Descartes to prove “self” Descartes argued that the ability to doubt

is a direct route to discovering the self “I think, therefore I am” Descartes arrived at self through process of

doubtDescartes’ “self” was mindful activity

Confirming the logic of idealism that reality is mind

Idealism and Knowledge

Understanding nature of knowledge will clarify reality

Ideals must be derived from logical evidence

Sensory experiences must be interpreted and validated as authentic or unreliable

Truth is orderly and systematicTest for truth: its coherence with knowledge

that has been previously establishedIndividual attains truth by examining the

wisdom of the past through his own mind

Idealism and Knowledge

Everything that exists has a relationship to something else that exists

Reality is a system of logic and order established by the universal mind

German Idealists

Idealist believes that world and universe are primarily spiritual Part of the “perfect world” Humans are composed of more than the corporeal They have a soul that is a link to spiritual reality Ultimate reality to an idealist is spiritual

German Idealists

George BerkeleyWorld has meaning because our minds are

able to discern itExperience allows us, through the mind, to

extract meaning from our existence, Something must exist that actually provides

the elements of quality and meaning This Something is the Universal Mind, or God

German idealists did not always base their belief in ultimate ideals with a traditional belief in God

German Idealists

Immanuel KantComplex philosophy Published first major book at age 57—

Critique of Pure ReasonTheory of knowledge: Conscious reason

is the catalyst for all of our experienceIt is our conscious experience (mind)

that provides unity and order

German Idealists: Kant

The world is represented to us by our physical senses and sensory input

Sensations are chaotic and, therefore, unrelated

These sensations we perceive are caused by “something out there”

Mind and conscious thought describes and orders sensations into perceptible components of space and time

German Idealists: Kant

Driving question: Can metaphysics exist as a science?

Seems we come to know science and metaphysics in similar ways

We link and unify sensory input by categorizing them through mindful activity (consciousness)

We catalog these as reliable or unreliable

German Idealists: Kant

Knowledge and reason are interactive process Originate in mind and are directed towards the

world Must “reason” through issues and questions“Thing in Itself”: defies our knowledge

Can never be known (infinite) Humans are finite Not able to comprehend or understand the

infinite

German Idealists: Kant

Kant bases his belief in God on moral grounds, not supernatural existence

Kant’s five beliefsCategorical imperative of Kant and physical

education-sportSportsmanship and moral conduct in sportTeach humanistic qualities espoused by

Kant

Johan Fichte

Concentrated on ethical writings that challenged humans

Believed that the phenomenal world we live in was designed to nurture and develop the “will” and develop character

Believed, unlike Kant, that the “thing in itself” was knowable

Evil is necessary: Catalyst for awakening the human spirit and spurring it to achievement

Johan Fichte

Human spirit would never achieve without the presence of evil

Human spirit and physical education: “Health of the body is essential to vigor of the mind and spirit development of the ‘self’”

Idealism—big association between mind, body, and spirit

Georg Hegel

Consummate idealist Reason can fathom all aspects of human experience

Epistemology = Thesis antithesis synthesis Profound influence on Karl Marx

Places corporeal world as a limited or finite ideaUltimate realities are within the realm of man’s

reasonBody is inferior to mind and spiritAssigned greater value to the ability to “know things”

than Kant and other Idealists

Georg Hegel

Idealism, Sport, and Physical Education

Idealism demands healthy and fit body for each person to reach full potential Mind would be at a disadvantage without a

healthy and fit bodyTo develop the self includes development

of the body Idealism supports the inclusion of physical

education

Idealism, Sport, and Physical Education

Idealism allows answer to “what is good” “What is good” in education involves training

toward moral ideals, not necessarily subject content

Physical education should include moral training as well as physical

The “moral imperative” applies to all aspects of sport and physical education

Moral imperative opposes Exploitation of athletes Low graduation rates

Idealism, Sport, and Physical Education

Achieving a superior life is the objectivePhysical, intellectual, spiritual, and moral

growth are desiredStudents are to be evaluated not just by

objectives tests but also subjectively—in terms of their “behavior, citizenship, and sociomoral conduct”

The Educators

Johann Pestalozzi (1746-1827)Theory of education: intellectual, moral, and

practicalPractical education involved gymnastics and

games as well as physical laborGave an important impetus to physical

education as a school subject Educational reforms would further physical

education

Freidrich Froebel (1782-1852)

Learned under a student of Pestalozzi’sBelieved in play as fundamental to growth

and developmentTheory of play supported physical education

“Play is the highest form of child development” Observation, discovery, and creativity were

necessary for developing skills

Friedrich Jahn

German nationalist who sought freedom from Napoleonic rule

Established secret society (German League) Devoted to “spiritual renovation of Germany” Called for nationwide physical education in all

universitiesGymnastics teacher

Established turnen exercises and turnverein movement

Physical exercises as training to liberate Germany

Friedrich Jahn

Jahn and Gymnastics

Gymnastic events to spread nationalismJahn and Turners served in the wars of

liberation from 1813-1815Became underground movement after

Germany won independence from FranceGovernment suppressed movement Three of Jahn’s students left for America

Provided basis for American physical education

Charles Follen

Lawyer, political subversive in GermanyFled to the U.S. in 1824Hired at Harvard to teach GermanDeveloped turnplatz at Harvard and at the

Boston GymnasiumFrancis Lieber (also Jahn follower) replaced

him in 1827

Charles Beck

Classics scholar and theologian, followed JahnSailed to U.S., taught at the Round Hill SchoolRound Hill: founded by Germans

First school to require mandatory physical education in the form of German gymnastics

Beck is credited with being first physical education teacher in America

Charles Beck’s Work

Franz Nachtegall

Father of physical education in DenmarkRead GutsMuths and began to tutor students Promoted gymnastics in all Danish schoolsAchieved some success training teachersProgram was largely taken over by military

teachers and military gymnastics

Per Henrik Ling

Originator of “Swedish” gymnasticsFundamental principles

Harmonious development of the body Biological, physiological exercises

Exercises were developmental, corrective, and aesthetic

Progressive difficulty and rigor

Ling’s Gymnastics

Grounded exercise in medical and scientific knowledge of the day

Never caught on like Jahn’s systemSome success in Northeast United States