Chapter 8: Learning Tiffany Amaya, Mandee Caulfield, Jeffrey

Taboada, Peta Kalokola, Rashaan Williams, and Xena Nguyen

How Do We Learn?• Learning is a relatively permanent change in an

organism's behavior due to experience• In associative learning, we learn to associate two

stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning) o Ex: When disturbed the sea snail will withdraw its gill

but if the squirts continue its withdrawal response diminishes. However if the sea snail repeatedly receives an electric shock just after being squirted its withdrawal response becomes stronger because it relates the squirt to the shock.

• In observational learning, we learn by watching others' experiences and examples.

How Do We Learn?• We learn by association, our minds naturally

connect events that occur in sequence• Simpler animals can learn simple associations

(the snail) and complex animals can learn more response-outcome associations (seals in an aquarium)

o In both cases the animals learned something important to their survival: to predict the immediate future

• Successful adaptation requires both nature and nurture

Classical Conditioning • Also called Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning• (Defn.) A type of learning in which an organism comes

to associate stimuli.• This phenomenon was explored by Ivan Pavlov(1849-

1936)• What occurs?

o A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus

• Pavlov's work laid a foundation for John B. Watson's ideaso Believed that psychology should study how organisms respond to

stimuli in their environment, it should be based on observable behavior.

• Behaviorismo The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies

behavior without reference to mental processes.

Classical Conditioning• Pavlov's Experiment

o Pavlov presented the dog with food and so it had an unconditioned response, an unlearned natural response ( Ex. salivation). Then a neutral stimulus ( Ex. a tone) was present before an unconditioned stimulus, stimulus that naturally triggers a response ( Ex. food in mouth). The neutral stimulus then became a conditioned stimulus, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus trigger a conditioned response. This is a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

• Generalizationo The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli

similar to the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses.

Classical Conditioning• Acquisition

o The initial stage in classical conditioning. the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to evoke a conditioned response.

o A very unusual conditioned stimulus!

Classical Conditioning • Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

o The diminishing of a conditioned response. This occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus.

o When the conditioned stimulus (tone) no longer sends signals for the unconditioned stimulus (food).

o Spontaneous Recovery The reappearance of a weakened conditioned after a

pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

• Discriminationo The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned

stimulus and a stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Extending Pavlov's Understanding• Cognitive Processes

o The early behaviorists' optimism that learning principles would generalize from one response to another and from one species to another has given way to the understanding that conditioning principles are influenced by our thoughts, perceptions, and expectations.

o In classical conditioning, humans and other animals learn when to expect a Unconditional Stimulus, and their awareness of the link between stimuli and responses can weaken associations.

• Biological Predispositionso Early behaviorists believed that any natural response could be

conditioned to any neutral stimulus in any living organisms. Learning theorists have abandoned this belief.

o Each species is biologically prepared to learn associations-such as humans' fear of spiders and snakes, or rats' aversion to tastes associated with nausea-that enhance its survival.

o Outside the laboratory, a Conditioned Stimulus tends to have a neutral association with the Unconditioned Stimulus it predicts

Pavlov's Legacy• A great deal of his ideas about

conditioning remaino HOWEVER if they were to be judged by

today's information on cognitive processes and biological predispositions his ideas would be incomplete

• Classical conditioning is one way that virtually all organisms learn to adapt to their environment (apply across species)• Pavlov also showed us how a process

such as learning can be studied objectively

Pavlov's Legacy (continued)

• Conditioning principles have important applicationso Suggesting how some fears are learned and

can be treated

• His success suggested a scientific model for how the young discipline of psychology might proceed by isolating the building blocks of complex behaviors and studying them with objective lab procedures

Close-Up: Trauma as classical conditioning• Experiments reveal that if a painful

stimulus is sufficiently powerful a single event is sometimes enough to traumatize the animal/person when it again faces the situation• Eleven years later she reported (as

many trauma victims do) that her conditioned fears had mostly extinguished

Operant Conditioning• A type of learning in

which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.• Organisms associate

their own actions with consequences. • Behaviors followed

by reinforcers increase; those followed by punishers decrease.

Similarities & Differences of Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

• Both involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination.

In Classical Conditioning:o The organism forms associations between behaviors it does

not control; this form of conditioning is called respondent behavior(automatic responses to some stimulus)

In Operant Conditioning:o The organism learns associations between its own behavior

and resulting events; this form of conditioning involves operant behavior(behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

Skinner's ExperimentsEdward L. Thorndike's Law

of Effect:• asserts that rewarded

behavior is likely to reiterate.

Skinner designed an operant chamber( Skinner Box)o The box has a bar

or key that an animal presses or pecks to release a reward of food or water, and a device that records these responses.

Shaping Behavior• In shaping, we use reinforcers to

guide a person's or an animal's behavior toward a desired goal.• Building on existing behaviors, we

reward successive approximations to some desired behavior.• Since nonverbal animals and babies

can respond only to what they perceive, their reactions demonstrate which events they can discriminate.

Positive vs. Negative ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement:• adds something desirable to

increase the frequency of behavior.Negative Reinforcement:• removes something undesirable to

increase the frequency of behavior.

Types of ReinforcersPrimary Reinforcers:• an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one

that satisfies a biological need.o ex's: getting food when hungry or being

relieved of electric shockConditioned Reinforcers(secondary reinforcer):• a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power

through its association with a primary reinforcer.o ex's: the food or medicine we buy

Strengths & Weaknesses of Continuous and Partial Reinforcement SchedulesIn Continuous Reinforcement:• reinforcing the desired response

every time it occurs; learning is rapid.

In Partial Reinforcement:• initial learning is slower, but the

behavior is much more resistant to extinction.

Reinforcement schedules may vary according to the number of responses rewarded or the time gap between responses.

Reinforcement SchedulesFixed- Ratio Schedules:• offers rewards after a set number of

responses.Variable- Ratio Schedules:• provide reinforcers after an unpredictable

number of responsesFixed-Interval Schedules:• reinforce the first response after a fixed

period of timeVariable-Interval Schedules:• reinforce the first response after varying time

intervals

Ways Negative Punishment, Positive Punishment, and Negative Reinforcement DifferBoth positive punishment and negative

punishment attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior.

Positive Punishment: • administering an undesirable

consequence, such as spankingNegative Punishment:• withdrawing from something

desirable, such as taking away a child's favorite toy

Ways Negative Punishment, Positive Punishment, and Negative Reinforcement Differ(continued)

Negative Reinforcement• removes something undesirable to

increase the frequency of a behavior.o Ex: Taking Aspirin calms down a headache

Punishment's undesirable side effects may include suppressing rather than changing unwanted behaviors, teaching aggression, creating fear, etc.

Latent Learning Effects

Latent Learning indicates that we can learn from experience, without apparent reinforcement. An external rewards ability to undermine our interest and pleasure in an activity weakens the idea that behaviors are rewarded will increase in frequency.

Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation• An external reward’s ability to

undermine our interest and pleasure in an activity weakens the idea that behaviors that are rewarded will increase in frequency.

Intrinsic Motivation:o A desire to perform a behavior for its own

sake.Extrinsic Motivation:

o A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats or punishments.

Biological Predispositions• Biological constraints predispose

organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive. Training that attempts to override these tendencies will probably not endure because the animals will revert to their biologically predisposed patterns.

Learning by Observation: Overview

Observation Learning: learning by observing others

Modeling: the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Mirror neurons: frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so; may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

Learning by Observation Bandura's Experiments • Likely to imitate actions that go

unpunished; imitate those whom we view as similar, successful or admirable• Ex: Peers, Celebrities, Parents Applications of Observation Learning • Helps to understand actions of othersEx: Abusive parents

Learning by Observation

Positive Observational Learning Prosocial behavior: positive, constructive,

helpful behavior; opposite of antisocial behavior • Children imitate regardless of good or bad;

conformity (Parents)

Television and Observational Learning • Correlations demonstrate

relationships but not the direction of influence (Violent shows, experiment) • Imitation and

Desensitization

Skinner's Legacy• Skinner was one of the most

controversial figures because people opposed his ideas of ignoring personal freedom and trying to control humans’ actions• We still continue to use his ideas today

Applications of Operant Conditioning

• School: Skinner advocated the use of teaching machine and textbooks because it would free teachers to concentrate on their students’ special needso Good instruction demands two things:

Students must be told immediately whether what they do is right or wrong and,

When right, they must be directed to the next step

• Sports: The key is to shape behavior, by first reinforcing small successes and then gradually increasing the challenge.o Golfers learn putting by starting with very short putts. As they

build mastery they step backo Baseball players begin with half swings at an oversized ball

pitched 10 ft. away. As they achieve mastery they move back -15,20,30,40.5 feet- and then introduce a standard baseball.

Applications of Operant Conditioning (continued)• Work: Managers on the floor should

affirm good wok with positive encouragement and, if need be, criticism. Material objects are not condoned.• Home:

o Give children attention and other reinforcers when they are behaving well. Target a specific behavior, reward it, and watch it increase.

o Ignore whining.o When children misbehave or are defiant, do

not yell or hit them. Explain the misbehavior and give them a timeout.

Using Operant Conditioning on Yourself• State your goal- to stop smoking,

exercise, eat less- in measurable terms, and make your intention public to people close to you.•Monitor- how often you engage in the

behavior you wish to promote• Reinforce- the desired behavior• Reduce the incentives