chapter 8 and 10b cell processes cells do what?. osmosis what is diffusion? (review) osmosis is the...
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Chapter 8 and 10b
Cell Processes
Cells do What?
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Osmosis• What is diffusion? (review)
• Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane– This maintains homeostasis in the cell
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Cells in an Isotonic Solution• Isotonic solution - the concentration of
dissolved substances in the solution is the same as the concentration of dissolved substances inside the cell
• Water does go in and out of the cell, but there is no net change in concentration
anim
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Cells in a Hypotonic Environment• Hypotonic solution - the concentration of
dissolved substances is lower in the solution outside the cell than the concentration inside the cell
• Therefore, water moves through the plasma membrane into the cell
• Pressure increases inside against the cell membrane and – Animal cells may burst– Plant cells become more “firm” as they expand
against the cell wall. (grocery stores)
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Hypotonic
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Cells in a Hypertonic Solution• Hypertonic solution - the concentration of
dissolved substances outside the cell is higher than the concentration inside the cell
• Water moves out of the cell– In animals, cells shrivel– In plants, membrane shrink away from cell wall
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Osmosis Lab
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Passive Transport• The movement of molecules across a
membrane by diffusion (no energy required)
• Facilitated Diffusion is passive transport across the cell membrane using proteins– Transport proteins form a channel to allow specific
molecules to flow across– Carrier proteins change shape to allow a substance
to pass through the plasma membrane
Animation
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Facilitated Diffusion
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Active Transport
• The movement of materials through a membrane against a concentration gradient– Requires energy
• Carrier proteins have a specific shape to allow them to bind with specific molecules
• Then then change shape (with energy) so molecule can be transported across
• Carrier protein resumes original shape
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Active Transport
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Transport of Large Molecules• Endocytosis - process by which a cell
surrounds and takes in material from its environment– Membrane forms around material and engulfs it
• Exocytosis - the expulsion of materials from a cell (wastes, hormones)– Membrane surrounds material and takes it to
membrane, opens up.
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Endocytosis
Exocytosis
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Section 1 Review
• What factors affect osmosis?
• How do animal and plant cells react differently in a hypotonic solution?
• How are facilitated diffusion and active transport similar? How different?
• How do carrier molecules facilitate transport of molecules across a membrane?
• A paramecium expels water when in freshwater. What kind of internal environment does it have?
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Cell Size Limitations• Most cells are between 2 and 200 m in diamater
– Red blood cells - 8 m
– Yolk of ostrich egg - 8 cm
• Why can’t we have big cells?
• Diffusion works slowly over large distances
• DNA can only work so fast
• Surface to volume ratio
– As size increases, the volume increases faster than the surface area
– Cell membrane would back up with all the nutrients coming into and out of a large cell
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Surface to Volume Ratio
1 mm
1 mm2 mm
2 mm4 mm
4 mmWhat is the surface area of each?
What is the volume of each?
2 mm1 mm
4 mm
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Cell Division & Chromosomes• Cell Division is the process by which new cells are
produced from one cell– Two new cells identical to original
• Early biologists discovered that chromosomes appear during cell division and then disappear – Later, found importance of chromosomes (DNA)
• When not dividing, chromosomes exist as chromatin - long strands of DNA wrapped around proteins called histones (groups of histones are called nucleosomes) – Upon division, they condense and organize into
chromosomes
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Chromosomes
back
The centromere plays an important role in the movement of chromosomes during mitosis
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The Cell Cycle• The cell cycle is the sequence of growth and
division of a cell
• The majority of a cell’s life is spent in a period of growth and normal function called interphase
• Following interphase, a cell enters its period of division, called mitosis – Mitosis is the process by which two daughter cells are
formed, each containing a complete set of chromosomes
• Following mitosis, is cytokinesis, where the cytoplasm divides, separating the two daughter cells
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The Cell Cycle
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Phases of Mitosis - Prophase• Prophase - 1st and longest phase• Chromatin condenses into chromosomes• Each duplicated chromosome has two halves,
called sister chromatids• The nucleus begins to disappear
– The nucleolus and nuclear envelope disintegrate
• Centrioles migrate to opposite corners– Centrioles are small, dark, cylindrical structures
made of microtubules that play a role in chromatid separation
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We’re still on Prophase• The spindle starts to form between the
centrioles– The spindle is a football-shaped, cagelike
structure consisting of thin fibers made of microtubules that helps separate sister chromatids later on
Interphase Prophase
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The Phases of Mitosis - Metaphase• Shortest phase
• The doubled chromosomes (sister chromatids) become attached to the spindle fibers by their centromeres
• Chromosomes are pulled and line up at the midline or equator of the cell
• Each sister chromatid is attached to a spindle fiber at one pole
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The Phases of Mitosis - Anaphase• The spindles pull the sister chromatids apart
– This marks the beginning of anaphase
• The centromeres split• The chromatids are pulled
apart by the shortening of the microtubules in the spindle fibers
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The Phases of Mitosis -Telophase• Begins as the chromatids reach the opposite
poles of cell
• Chromosomes begin to unwind
• Spindle breaks down
• Nucleolus reappears and nuclear envelope forms around chromosomes
• A new double membrane begins to form between two new nuclei
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Cytokinesis
• Differs in plants and animals
• In animals, the plasma membrane pinches in along the equator
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Cytokinesis• In plants, a cell plate is laid down across the
cell equator– Then, a cell membrane forms around each new
cell and new cell walls form on each side of the cell plate
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Results of Mitosis
• In unicellular organisms, the organism simply multiplied
• In multicellular organisms, two new cells are created to replenish dead cells or contribute to the growth of the organism
• Guarantees genetic continuity (new cells do things the same way as the old cells)
Cell Cycle Quiz
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Levels of Organization• Cell
– Ex: muscle cell
• Tissue - groups of cells that work together to perform a specific function– Ex: muscle tissue
• Organs - tissues organized in various combinations that perform complex roles– Ex: stomach
• Organ System - multiple organs that work together– Ex: digestive system
• Organism all the organ systems working together – Ex: Florida panther
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Section 2 Review• Describe how a cell’s surface-to-volume ratio
limits its size.
• Why is it necessary for a cell’s chromosomes to be distributed to its daughter cells in such a precise matter?
• Describe what happens in prophase. In metaphase. In telophase. In anaphase.
• Describe the phases of the cell cycle.
• Give an example at each level of organization in an organism.
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Normal Control of the Cell Cycle• Proteins called cyclins and a set of enzymes that attach to
the cyclin control the cell cycle
• Research points to the portion of interphase just before DNA replication as a key period in the cell cycle
• Enzyme production is directed by genes located on chromosomes
– A gene is a segment of DNA that controls the production of a protein
• These control how fast or how slow the cell cycle needs to proceed.
– When would the cell cycle need to speed up or slow down?
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Cancer• Cancer is a malignant growth resulting from
uncontrolled cell division• This failure to control cell growth may result
from not producing enzymes, overproducing enzymes, or producing the wrong enzymes at the wrong times.
• Currently, scientists think cancer starts because of changes in one or more of the genes that produce substances to control the cell cycle
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Cancer• Tumors grow and deprive normal cells of
nutrients
• In later stages, the cancer spreads throughout the body (called metastasis)
• Leading cause of death in the United States (heart disease now #2)
• Can be genetically caused
• Can be environmentally caused– Cigarette smoke, air and water pollution,
exposure to UV rays from the sun, viral infections
Animation
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Cancer Prevention• Diets low in fat and high in fiber can reduce the risk
of cancer
– Ex: fruits, vegetables and grain products for fiber
• Vitamins and minerals may also help prevent cancer
– Expecially carotenoids (found in yellow, orange, and green leafy vegetables), vitamins A, C, and E, and calcium
• Exercise, not smoking and other healthy habits are known to reduce the risk also
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Section 3 Review• Do all cells complete the cell cycle in the
same amount of time?
• What controls the cell cycle?
• How can disruption of the cell cycle result in cancer?
• How does cancer affect normal cell functioning?
• What can be done to help reduce the risk of cancer?
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Diploid Cells• In animals and most plants, chromosomes
occur in pairs – one from each parent– A cell with two of each kind of chromosome is called a
diploid cell and contains a diploid, or 2n, number of chromosomes
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Haploid Cells• Organisms produce
gametes that contain one of each kind of chromosome – Called haploid, and has a
haploid, or n, number of chromosomes
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Homologous Chromosomes
• The two chromosomes of each pair in a diploid cell are called homologous chromosomes
• The chromosomes contain the same genes in the same order, but might not be identical (unless parents genotypes are identical)
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Why Meiosis?• Why won’t mitosis work for making gametes?• Cell division which produces gametes
containing half the number of chromosomes as a parent’s body cell is called meiosis– Why is this good?
• Meiosis consists of two separate divisions– Meiosis I– Meiosis II
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Why Meiosis?• By the end of meiosis II, there are four
haploid cells called sex cells or gametes– Male gametes are called sperm or pollen– Female gametes are called eggs
• Fertilization is when sperm and egg unite – produces a zygote (fertilized cell)– Fusion of haploid sex cells is called sexual
reproduction
• Example: Male is 2n=46, gamete is n=23– Female is 2n=46, gamete n=23– After fertilization, new zygote is 2n=46
• Mitosis then takes over and organism grows
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Phases of Meiosis
• Other than what happens to the chromosomes, everything else in meiosis is essentially the same as in mitosis
• Interphase– Cell replicates its
chromosomes
– End up with two identical sister chromatids, held together by a centromere
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Prophase I• Chromosomes coil, spindle forms, etc.• Homologous chromosomes line up with other to form a
four-part structure called a tetrad– A tetrad is two homologous chromosomes (one from mom, one
from dad), each made of two sister chromatids • The chromatids are paired so tightly that chromosomes
can actually break and exchange genetic material– Process called crossing over– This can occur at any part of a chromatid and can occur several
times• Crossing over results in the new combinations of alleles
resulting in different people– Each pair of homologous chromosomes averages 2-3
crossovers in humans
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Metaphase I
• Centromeres become attached to spindle fiber
• Tetrads pulled to equator of cell
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Anaphase I• Homologous chromosomes, each with its two
chromatids, separate and move to opposite ends of the cell
• Centromeres don’t split• Ensures that each new cell will only receive one
chromosome from each homologous pair – Errors happen here often
back
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Telophase I• Spindle broken down• Chromosomes uncoil• Cytoplasm divides • Each cell has half the
genetic information of the original cell– This is because it has only
one chromosome from each homologous pair
– This chromosome is still doubled
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Meiosis II
• Some cells rest between stages
• Other cells go from Anaphase I straight to metaphase of meiosis II
• PMAT proceed much like mitosis
• End up with one copy of each chromosome (haploid)
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Mitosis vs. Meiosis
Meiosis Animation
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Section 2 Review
• How are the cells at the end of meiosis different from the cells at the beginning of meiosis?
• What does haploid mean? Diploid?• If the diploid number of a plant is 10, how
many chromosomes would you expect to find in its triploid offspring?