chapter 7 stratification: rich and famous—or rags and famine? © pine forge press, an imprint of...

Chapter 7Chapter 7Stratification:Stratification:

Rich and Famous—or Rich and Famous—or

Rags and Famine?Rags and Famine?

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.


Social stratification: individuals and groups are layered or ranked in society according to how many valued resources they possess

An ongoing process of sorting people into layers, legitimated by cultural beliefs that justify inequality

The Importance of Stratification


The concept of stratification assumes that:People are divided into ranked categories

Desired resources are unequally distributed

Each society determines how individuals are ranked, depending on:

History

Geographic location

Level of development

Political philosophy

Decisions of those in power

The Importance of Stratification


Prestige and Influence

Property, power, and prestige are accorded to individuals with:

Cultural capital: knowledge and access to important information

Social capital: networks with others who have influence

Individual qualities also influence cultural and social capital

Micro-Level Stratification


Access to ResourcesIndividual status is shaped by access to resources and reinforced by the family through socialization

Our treatment by educational, religious, political, and other institutions often depends on our status, and also reinforces it

Our experiences of life are shaped by our status

Meso-Level Stratification


Macro-level influences on stratification:

Economic systems and resources within a particular country

Position of that country within world systems of economic stratification

Macro-Level Stratification


Micro-Level TheorySymbolic Interaction

Individuals take up social positions through socialization, in which they learn the appropriate cultural capitalCultural capital influences children’s school and home environmentsSocial positions are represented by symbols

Conspicuous consumption: displaying goods in a way that will be noticed and will earn the owner respect

Theories of Stratification


Meso- and Macro-Level TheoriesStructural-Functional Theory

Stratification within societies is inevitable

The stratification system provides each individual with a position in the social world

The stratification system motivates individuals to carry out their roles

As a result, each individual contributes in some way to the maintenance of society



Structural-Functional Theory, cont.

The Davis and Moore Thesis

Some positions are more highly valued because people feel they are very important

Rewards for these positions are high because society must motivate talented individuals to undertake the necessary but difficult preparation for them

Differential rewards for positions result in unequal distribution of resources; stratification is inevitable



Meso- and Macro-Level TheoriesConflict Theory

Stratification is the outcome of struggles for dominance and scarce resources Individuals and groups act in their own self-interest, taking advantage of others Conflict—between those trying to hold onto existing advantages and those trying to gain new advantages—is inevitable



Conflict Theory, cont.

Karl Marx, an originator of conflict theory

Lived during a time of economic change which prompted him to question stratification

Described distribution of wealth in capitalist societies as based on what people can take, not what they need, want, or earn



Marx’s Conflict Theory, cont.Marx described two economic classes

The bourgeoisie, capitalists, or “haves”The proletariat, working class, or “have nots”

Conflict arises from struggle between classes:Capitalists control the means of production, i.e. money, materials, factories, which they use to create profits for themselvesSince members of the working class lack their own means of production, they must work for capitalists in order to earn a livingTherefore, capitalists can exploit workers in order to maintain and enlarge their profits



Marx’s Conflict Theory, cont.Capitalists remain in control because:

They control the norms and values of societyThey use their power to make inequality seem “fair” and justified

This system will last until:The working class develops class consciousness, or shared awareness of the causes of their low status

• They may be aided in this by intellectuals

Based on class consciousness, the working class will overthrow the bourgeoisie and create a classless society in which wealth is shared



Max Weber’s Conflict TheoryMax Weber, also a conflict theorist, critiqued Marx’s sole focus on economic factors. His stratification theory included power and prestige, as well as property.Recent conflict theorists argue that there are 5 social classes:


• Capitalists• Managers • Petty bourgeoisie

• Workers• Underclass


Meso- and Macro Level TheoriesEvolutionary Theory of Stratification

To survive people must cooperate, but conflicts occur when important decisions advantage one group over another

Valued items are always in demand but short supply; struggle over these scarce items is likely

Custom shapes the distribution of scarce resources, but after basic societal needs are met, power determines distribution of surplus



Evolutionary Theory of Stratification, cont. Synthesis of functionalist and conflict theories:

Structural functionalism •Talented individuals need to be motivated

Conflict theory • Individuals will attempt to control as much

wealth, power, and prestige as possible, resulting in potential conflict

•Exploitation contributes to creating inequality

Level of inequality depends on technologySome inequality is useful, too much can be harmful



The micro-level:Individual Life Chances

Life chances: one’s opportunities, which depend on achieved and ascribed statuses

Important factors affecting life chances:EducationHealth, social conditions, and life expectancy

Individual Social Status


Individual LifestyleLifestyle: one’s attitudes, values, beliefs, and behavior patterns, which depend on socialization into one’s culture and status

Factors affecting lifestyle:Attitudes toward achievementFamily life and child rearing patterns Religious membershipPolitical behaviorStatus inconsistency

Individual Social Status


The Micro-Meso Connection:Social Mobility

Social mobility: the extent to which people move up and down in the class systemFour issues dominate analysis of mobility:

Types of social mobility

Methods of measuring social mobility

Factors that affect social mobility

Whether there is a “land of opportunity”

Social Mobility


Types of Social MobilityIntergenerational mobility: change in status compared to parents’ status, usually resulting from education and occupational attainment

Intragenerational mobility: change in status within an individual’s life, whether up or down

Vertical mobility: movement up or down the stratification hierarchy, sometimes including a change in social class

Social Mobility


Measuring Social MobilityTraditional method: compare the occupations of fathers and sons or daughters

There is a high level of occupational inheritanceThe higher the father’s occupation, the greater the son’s chances of occupational successThere is considerable intergenerational movement up and down the ladderSons are more likely to move up than down; daughters are even more likely to move up

Men’s and women’s occupational attainment is powerfully influenced by class origins

Social Mobility


Factors Affecting Individual MobilityMicro-level factors

Family background, socialization, and education

Macro-level factorsNational occupational structure & economic vitalityNational population trends(Dis)advantages linked to gender and ethnicityGlobal markets and events

Many of these factors are interrelated

Social Mobility


Is there a “land of opportunity”?Comparing mobility across cultures

It is difficult to identify opportunity-rich countries due to the complex factors that influence mobility

Opportunities for upward mobility are changing due to globalization

Manufacturing jobs are now in developing countries, leaving less-educated US workers with fewer opportunitiesThe US has high-tech jobs, providing opportunity for those from small, educated families that value individual achievement

Social Mobility


Macro-level analysis:Major Stratification Systems

Ascribed stratification systems: individuals’ positions in society are determined by characteristics they are born with

Achieved stratification systems: individuals earn their positions through ability and effort

Stratification


Ascribed Status SystemsCaste systems: the caste one is born into determines one’s occupation, potential marriage partners, residence, group memberships, and prestige level

An individual’s caste is recognized through clothing, speech, family name, skin color, other characteristicsIndividuals learn their caste through socializationThe most rigid ascribed status system; maintained by norms, ideologies, and social control mechanisms embedded in religious, political, and economic institutions

Stratification


Ascribed Status SystemsEstate systems: one is born into the nobility, the political-military elites, or into the peasantry, whose labor supports the elites

Peasants receive protection and enough food to survive from the nobilityPeasants are tied to a noble’s land and are rarely able to become independent land-ownersRanks and rights are clearly spelled outThe system is bolstered by arranged marriages

Stratification


Achieved Status SystemsSocial class system: social class is defined by property, power, and prestige; it is officially achieved, but actually inherited in part

Property: income and assetsPower: ability to control or influence others

(Power Elite vs. Pluralism models)

Prestige: recognition, esteem, respect given those whose occupation and lifestyle are socially valued Class members share similar lifestyles, education, culture, and interaction patterns

Stratification


Most people in the U.S. identify as “middle class,” but the middle class is shrinkingThe gap between the richest 5% and poorest 40% has increased since the 1970s Middle class wages and salaries have declined since the 1980s

Social Classes in the United States


Poverty Determinants and Social Policy

Absolute poverty: not having sufficient resources to meet basic survival needs

Also no prestige, power, or accumulated wealth

Relative poverty: having an income below the poverty line, and an inadequate standard of living relative to others in the same country

Also poorer health, shorter life expectancy, greater infant mortality than others in the same country

Poverty



Feminization of poverty: trend in which single females, often young and with children, make up a growing proportion of those in poverty

Many poor women grew up in female-headed families or suffered economically following divorcePrevalent in and around major citiesExplained by

• Blaming the victim• Conflict perspective: poor women comprise a reserve

group of cheap, easily exploited laborers

Poverty



Social costs of povertyThe poor have lower physical and mental health, are more alienated, have higher rates of addictionFinancial cost of addressing the needs of and regulating the poorLoss of talent and abilities that the poor could contributeContradiction to cultural values of equality and upward mobility

Poverty


Eliminating Poverty: Policy ConsiderationsMost welfare programs aim to eliminate poverty by changing the factors that perpetuate it

Requires jobs, money, altering our social institutions

Aid Programs:Women, Infants, & Children (WIC) program: nutritionHead Start: early childhood educationMedicaidMedicareFood stampsWorkfare (TANF)

Poverty


Eliminating Poverty: Policy ConsiderationsWorkfare

Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)Replaced Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), which was criticized as creating dependenceRequires individuals receiving assistance to work 20-30 hours/week or attend training/educationIssues and questions

• Are there jobs available at a “living wage”?• Voters want tax cuts, which reduce our ability to help• Prisons take public funds that could be used to fight

poverty

Poverty


The National and Global Digital DivideDigital divide: the gap between those with and without access to information technology.

Results from differences in socioeconomic status, minority group status, and urban versus rural residence

Individuals with insufficient computer and internet access or skills face barriers to many professions and opportunities

Public and private organizations are developing low-cost technologies that may help level the digital playing field

Macro-Level Stratification

chapter 7 stratification: rich and famous—or rags and famine? © pine forge press, an imprint of...

Documents

imprint of sage publications

social stratification

concept of stratification

macrolevel influences

social world

cultural beliefs

valued resources

economic systems