Conflicts of Control and Equality: Performativity versus Empowerment in a Welsh Initiative/Policy

(Dr. Jan Bardsley, University Of Wales Newport, BERA Conference, Warwick, 2006)

Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, University of Warwick, 6-9 September 2006

Abstract:

This paper is derived from the work of an unpublished PhD entitled ‘Modularisation and the Credit Framework in Further Education in Wales: A Study of Policy and Practice’. The research’s main aim was to reveal the perception/reactions of various Further Education stakeholders to this initiative/policy – students, staff, managers and elite personnel. Policy formation during the period studied conformed in many respects to the model propounded by Broadfoot (1996; 1999). Hence the main themes and conceptual threads revolve around issues of social control in conflict with issues of equality: needs perceived for the growth of the economy in conflict with individual needs and the resulting change in qualification structure. This conflict of control and equality was explored using various policy models – the theoretical framework (Berkhout and Wielemans, 1999; Taylor and Rizvi et al, 1997; Ball, 1990, 1994). However, this study also examined a number of issues surrounding management of change and identified a number of barriers to policy implementation and adoption within the Post Compulsory/Further Education sector.

The research was completed in two stages using a mixed methodology. Seven FE colleges throughout Wales were presented as case studies and ten elite individuals representing a number of different agencies were involved through individual interviews. Although this research took place in 1995/96 many issues are still relevant today. Indeed the Credit Framework is still ongoing (ELWA) and many of the themes of the original initiative can be seen in Welsh policy documents such as the Learning Country (Welsh Office, 2001), and in the recent preliminary report, 14 – 19 Learning Pathways (WAG, 2005).

This paper will focus on the findings from the elite interviewees, the second stage of the research. It will address the qualitative data collected through elite interviews to examine whether consensus or conflict between different elite stakeholders existed. It will investigate whether the perceptions of these stakeholders regarding the initiative lean towards performativity or empowerment, or both. It will also explore if potential implementation problems were identified and how these could influence the initiative thus, addressing the management of change (or resistors to change); as relevant today for other initiatives/policy pending implementation.

The analysis categories, codes, patterns and themes which have emerged from the interview information itself, will be presented under narrative themes - in the form of ‘telling a story’. In order that the narrative can be told in a logical but effective manner, three main headings or ‘story telling’ themes will be used - ‘assumptive worlds’, ‘jostling for position’ and ‘tail wags the dog’.

Results indicate that the initiative was seen in a positive light, encompassing, in the Dr Jan Bardsley 1

main, both empowerment and performativity elements. However, not all individuals shared the same assumptive world (Young and Mills, 1978). Conflict and tension was apparent between the majority of policy actors interviewed. The ten elite individuals representing different agencies all jostled for positions of power and prestige in order to obtain political ‘clout’; aiding the formation of barriers regarding the development and implementation of policy. Issues of concern revolved around political influences exerted through factors such as policy reports, funding and assessment; in other words government control. Senior FE managers were not perceived as effective change agents but effective change resistors. Therefore, government intervention could be argued to be necessary to ensure change is effected; a case of policies managing change. Thus a main conclusion drawn from the study is that we still find conflict and confusion emanating from the inherent tensions between performativity and empowerment.

Introduction

This study seeks to explore the perceptions of policy actors (elite interviewees)

involved in developing the All-Wales Modularisation and Credit Framework initiative

and the reactions of those in colleges. Although the genesis of this study is in the early

and mid 1990s we can nevertheless learn a great deal about how people perceived or

behaved in relation to major changes years ago. This knowledge can then influence

policy and potentially have a bearing on policy implementation today, in particular

Welsh educational policy. As Jane Davidson (AM) states in the foreword of The

Learning Country 2 document, produced by the newly formed Department for

Education, Lifelong Learning and Skills (DELLS): ‘Our policies will also continue to

be evidence based… we have drawn both on practitioner expertise and high quality

educational research’ (DELLS, 2006, p.1).

The re-emergence of many of the same themes from the initiative under study, through

the publication of the Welsh policy text The Learning Country (Welsh Office/National

Assembly for Wales, 2001), and also the recent report, 14-19 Learning Pathways

(Welsh Assembly Government, 2005) raises the profile of the Welsh initiative under

study once again. Thus this research still has currency today. The themes of widening

access and participation, choice and flexibility can now be seen in the concepts behind

the rapidly developing Welsh Baccalaureate Qualification (WBQ). The WBQ is

actually a framework which proposes to encompass both vocational and academic

qualifications, referred to as options. The core embraces all six Key Skills and contains

Dr Jan Bardsley 2

three modules; Wales, Europe and the World (including a language element), Work

Related Education and Personal and Social Education. Where partial achievement of

the WBQ is secured then students will gain credits. This brings us to another

development proposed by Education Learning Wales (ELWa, which is now part of

DELLS), that of a credit and qualifications framework.

From 2003 onwards all accredited learning, including main stream

qualifications offered in Wales, will gradually be brought into a single unifying

structure – the Credit and Qualifications Framework for Wales (ELWa, June

2003, p.1).

The 14-19 Learning Pathways initiative (WAG, 2005) raises the same issues as the

initiative under study (Modularisation and the Credit Framework). Issues such as

flexibility, breadth of study, choice and parity are still very relevant today. But, if

policies are to be successful in the future then we must learn from the past, a past which

has clearly demonstrated issues of social control in conflict with issues of equality, as

the needs for economic growth or social intervention conflict with individuals’ needs

and ends. In the words of Broadfoot (1996;1999) the conflict between ‘performativity’

and ‘empowerment’ and the resulting ‘certification’ – changes in the qualification

structure. Indeed, Allen (2003, p.103) observed that in trying to bring education and the

needs of the economy closer ‘…there have been various blue-prints for the

modernisation of the curriculum and the reform of qualifications’.

The All-Wales Modularisation and Credit Framework Project can be conceptualised

as an attempt to encompass both empowerment and performativity, and was a response

to certification requests outlined in reports such as; A British Baccalaureate: Ending

the Division Between Education and Training, (Finegold, et al. 1990) and A Basis for

Credit? (FEU, 1993). Social pressures for equality and ‘parity of esteem’ between

vocational and academic qualifications became part of policy debates, and in May

1991, the Conservative government produced its White Paper Education and Training

for the 21st Century. This White Paper (DES, 1991) was one of the catalysts in the

development of GNVQs and modular A Levels, although other factors such as modular

provision in Europe (policy and globalisation issues), also had a part to play in the Dr Jan Bardsley 3

changing ‘certification’. Issues of parity inevitably arose as the result of these

innovative developments.

The research for this study consisted of two stages in order to gather the perceptions/

reactions of selected stakeholders to the initiative/policy in question. This paper will

address the second stage, the qualitative data collected through elite interviews to

examine if consensus or conflict between different elite stakeholders existed. It also

investigates the extent to which the perceptions of these stakeholders (often referred to

as policy actors) lean towards performativity or empowerment, or both. Also explored

is whether potential implementation problems were identified and how these could

influence the initiative thus, addressing the management of change. The modes and

layers of analysis completed will be described and discussed. It was anticipated and

deemed desirable that pattern of opinions would be identified and that using different

categories and themes would aid with various levels of analysis and interpretation.

The results of the analysis will be presented in the form of ‘telling a story’ - a narrative

approach. Individuals will not be named but given a pseudonym, and only the bodies or

agencies they represented at that time will be revealed (summer 1995). In order that

the narrative can be told in a logical but effective manner, three main headings or ‘story

telling’ themes will be used - ‘assumptive worlds’, ‘jostling for position’ and ‘tail wags

the dog’. The analysis categories, codes, patterns and themes which have emerged from

the interview information itself, will be presented under these narrative themes. Due to

word constraints and size limitation regarding this paper, few verbatim interview

responses will be included; instead a brief overview/summary must suffice.

Methodology, Analysis and Interpretation

Elite interviewing consists of in-depth or focused face to face dialogue. This method of

information collection can be argued as the oldest form of research (Alasuutari, 1998)

but can however be problematic (Cohen et al. 2000, p.122). Nevertheless, conversations

seemed appropriate in order to gather the perceptions of these policy actors.

The importance of interview skills should not be underestimated, nor the interaction

Dr Jan Bardsley 4

between interviewee and interviewer. Indeed in-depth interviews can encourage and

entice information that is both illuminating and has greater richness than perhaps other

processes; however, care is needed in the analysis of such data (Oppenheim, 1992;

Cohen, et al. 2000).

Each of the ten interviews was first assigned a number to aid with ensuring

confidentiality, clarity and for comparative purposes with some agencies having more

than one representative. A pseudonym was then used for each individual. The agencies

who participated in the study were as follows: The Welsh Office, Welsh Access

Consortia, National (and Regional) Open College Network (NOCN and OCNs),

Fforwm, Further Education Unit/Further Education Development Agency, Higher

Education Quality Council and LEA via – Director of Education.

When analysing data it was anticipated and deemed desirable that patterns of opinions

would be identified (Boyatzis, 1998). In analysing the information gained from the raw

information (the elite interview), it was firstly turned into data by categorising and

coding it, then made sense of through identifying emergent themes, and lastly, finally

explained through analysis and interpretation. All coding for the interviews was

completed manually. A number of codes were grouped to form categories which then

formed themes. These elements or patterns of interest form the theme definitions and

thus, the emergent themes have derived from the data itself - inductively; but as

Boyatzis (1998, p.161) discovered: ‘Regardless of all this potential, thematic analysis is

not easy to use... it typically takes more time and energy than quantitative techniques’.

After some deliberation I used a ‘multi-layered’ analysis approach (Kaufman, 1992),

regarding analysis of the qualitative data generated through the interviews. Adopting a

multiple analytical strategy (Coffey and Atkinson, 1996), involved using different sets

of themes for analysis and appeared the most logical approach to take in order that

subtle elements of conflict, contradiction or tension, may be identified. A number of

layers of analysis would prove beneficial regarding interpretation, and this method

would also aid the validity, reliability and credibility of the findings and results.

The first layer of analysis used the same codes and themes as those used for the case

studies in this research: Impact, Conflict/Confusion and Implications, although the Dr Jan Bardsley 5

emphasis now revolved around the perceptions of these policy actors. In other words

how did these elite interviewees perceive the impact of this initiative and Fforwm, the

main policy driver, on FE establishments? Were there areas of conflict between

individual elite stakeholders?

What barriers did they anticipate regarding implementation and delivery? What future

problems (if any) did various interviewees perceive or identify with and thus, what

policy developments were envisaged?

The second layer of analysis used another group of emergent themes - Importance,

Involvement and Issues, mainly derived from the conflict and struggles concerning

positions of power and dominance. Were interviewees confident regarding their

position and level of power? Were they confident with the involvement of other policy

actors? Were their concerns over general or specific issues?

The third level of analysis involved identifying those interviewees who reacted or at

least discussed topics which encompassed the conceptual and theoretical framework of

this study. Thus, the third level of analysis revolved around issues of empowerment,

performativity and policy developments. For example were real advantages for students

identified by these stakeholders (the elite interviewees), thereby empowering students

within FE? Were assessment issues, addressing employer’s needs, rationalisation and

cost effectiveness mentioned as advantages for FE establishments regarding

implementation of this initiative? Were insights of the policy making process

highlighted or identified by any of these stakeholders? From these last three themes,

the analysis can indicate whether this initiative was perceived by interviewees as

primarily one that is empowering or aiding performativity, or indeed whether it appears

to be elements of both. Themes/issues/categories were compared across transcripts,

enabling similarities, variations and differences to be identified and thus, provided a

holistic synthesis of the data (Kaufman, 1992).

Findings and Discussions

In telling the story, subheadings (main themes) will be used under which the various

levels of analysis and interpretation can be grouped and presented. The focus for this Dr Jan Bardsley 6

study was to obtain the perceptions/reactions of various stakeholders to the All-Wales

Modularisation and the Credit Framework initiative. However, the emphasis in this

paper is the perceptions/reactions of various policy actors. Three main narrative themes

will be used for the presentation of the analysis regarding the elite interviews -

‘assumptive worlds’, ‘jostling for position’ and ‘tail wags the dog’.

Under the theme ‘assumptive worlds’ the various advantages and disadvantages each

interviewee described will be examined. Thus, whether this initiative was seen in a

positive or negative light, encompassing issues of empowerment, performativity, or

both will be discussed; also whether a clash of interest between these two factors was

perceived. From this it can be deduced whether the policy actors share the same values

and therefore, the same ‘assumptive worlds’. Under ‘jostling for position’ issues

concerning conflict and tension will be presented as elite interviewees who,

representing a number of different agencies, jostle for positions of power in order to

obtain political ‘clout’ and influence (Ball, 1994; Fitz and Halpin, 1994). Under the

theme of ‘tail wags the dog’ concerns regarding government control will be

highlighted. Thus, political influences on the FE curriculum concerning the actual pace

and general development for the initiative will be discussed. It has not been possible to

include many verbatim responses from interviews conducted but perhaps a more

extensive paper can be published in the near future to incorporate this element.

Assumptive Worlds: Overview/Summary

It is clear that the initiative was perceived in a positive light by all ten interviewees.

Although some negative elements were discussed, the general feeling associated with

this initiative is of few disadvantages. The perception of others regarding curriculum

fragmentation and coherence, as well as the reactions of HE appeared to be the main

areas of concern. Nevertheless, from the analysis it can be deduced that the same values

are not apparent or indeed shared. Although some commonality can be seen in the

responses of many interviewees, each interview was different, representing as it does a

discrete individual. As a result subtle shades of differences or conflict can be observed.

Indeed this point was observed by Gillham (2000) who suggested that although people

may be saying the same types of things their actual interpretations of words or phrases Dr Jan Bardsley 7

can be quite different. Thus, key words such as flexibility, choice, skills, employability

and the economy which have been used by all, does not mean that they share the same

values and a common sense of reality, and thus, the same assumptive world (Young and

Mills, 1978). However, which assumptive world is evident: a ‘centralised’ world where

government and dominant groups hold power or the ‘partnership model’ where shared

power is characterised by conflict, bargaining and compromise? The results propose

that both assumptive worlds are indeed evident.

Although all interviewees perceived benefits associated with the initiative, some leaned

more towards the benefits for students, whilst others the benefits for industry. These

two general leanings can be classified into a ‘consumer-led’ philosophy (meeting the

needs of the individual), or a ‘market-led’ philosophy (meeting the needs of industry).

Five interviewees emphasised the benefits for students and thus could be said to have

leanings towards a curriculum policy which is ‘consumer-led’. Two interviewees

expressed greater concern over the advantages for the employer and industry and thus,

have a leaning towards a curriculum policy which is ‘market-led’, but three appear to

straddle both concepts. These two philosophies or leanings can be linked to the main

conceptual threads for this study: empowerment verses performativity. A ‘consumer-

led’ approach can be seen as empowering the student through providing choice and

flexibility whereas a ‘market-led’ approach covers issues of performativity thereby

providing employers and government some control or influence over the skills required

by the future workforce; for economic prosperity.

Jostling for Position: Overview/Summary

There did appear to be an agreement on policy, in that two different credit framework

systems - one in Wales and another in England should be avoided at all costs. This

indeed was a point of consensus by the majority of policy actors interviewed.

Presenting this initiative in the same terms, via a common language, was also

considered a necessary policy process, although differences in interpretation would still

be a cause of concern for many. Although not outwardly visible as great directors of

policy in Wales at the time, Fforwm could exert much influence, especially when

identified as the ‘…owners of the FE curriculum’. Indeed, comments such as these Dr Jan Bardsley 8

clearly demonstrate the role that Fforwm had in the eyes of the Welsh Office. However,

it should be remembered that this was at a time when the Conservative Party was in

power and before Welsh devolution and the existence of the Welsh Assembly.

Other interviewees were eager to pronounce that power and policy guidance held by

Fforwm should be shared. Thus, conflict between various stakeholders clearly existed.

The main bone of contention from many individuals appeared to be the role and

behaviour of the OCNs. However, other areas of conflict were apparent, for example,

the role of Government and Government departments such as the DfEE as well as

awarding bodies, and conflicts of interest between FE, HE and schools. This, together

with conflicts between regions, by that I mean England versus Wales, seemed to be the

main area of policy conflict outlined and discussed

What appeared to be fairly consistent in most interviews was the jostling for position

and prestige by many of the policy actors interviewed. Concerns that specific

organisations and/or specific individuals ‘remained at the helm’ was apparent in a

number of interviews. However, this could be purely to ensure that their level of power

and control remained intact, or even perhaps for sheer political survival. However,

many of the interviewees expressed real anguish regarding the attitude and behaviour of

the OCNs and their perceived struggle for dominance, power and control. Compromise,

although a term not actively discussed in the interviews, did appear to be a silent tool

used by these policy actors, where permitted, to drive forward developments regarding

the initiative. As Jess explained:

...you have to flatten the playing field a bit first to make it really sensible... It’s a question of how we go about that with the trust of all parties, and it feels like we have to go forward quite slowly holding hands... We also need most people collaborating on the similar understanding of the credit framework, given how difficult that is to achieve with... misinterpretation.

Tail Wags the Dog: Overview/Summary

From analysis of the comments presented under this theme, real concern was apparent Dr Jan Bardsley 9

from the majority of policy actors interviewed regarding certain issues or aspects of

control exerted by government. Many of the interviewees perceived the possibility that

these aspects of control could be used as the major force that would drive future

developments concerning the initiative. In other words, a case of the ‘tail wags the

dog’. Dangers were envisaged by some but not all concerning the political influences

which forced the pace of development and required quantifiable (quantitative) results in

a short time span, thus in essence, producing a distortion. This same distortion could

also be produced by the then pending Dearing Report (1996), a report which many

expected would influence the government of the day and its educational policy. A

further issue of concern revolved around funding and its implications and whether the

principles and concepts behind the All-Wales Modularisation and the Credit

Framework initiative would be lost in a sea of greed with FE grabbing at any financial

incentive available to it; perhaps even for survival. Thus, the needs of the students

would be eclipsed by the needs of the college and its output funding; again, another

potential distortioning factor. These same concerns were also related to the issue of

assessment. Assessment was perceived as a tool used by government for control not

only to reproduce social structures within society, but also to manage/direct college

performance and funding. Although assessment in FE is governed by external bodies

these respond to government agendas such as performance, recorded through devices

such as league tables. Once again performativity (Broadfoot, 1999) is demonstrated by

the use of these tools to exercise political control over FE establishments.

The last issue for consideration under the narrative theme of ‘tail wags the dog’ is

management of change. However, this has not been presented overtly as a political

influence, but more as the struggles against this. Rather than control exerted by

government this last issue could be seen as an element of control used by principals;

who appear to be the main resistors to change, according to the perceptions of the

majority of interviewees. Without the support of senior FE managers and gatekeepers,

barriers to implementation will naturally occur and staff at the grass roots level will not

be encouraged to participate. However, it could be argued that with all other changes

that FE establishments have had to endure over the past few decades, most being

politically generated, many establishments have reached saturation point (Slowey,

1995). Dr Jan Bardsley 10

Another way of examining this same issue is to consider why principals and managers

seemed reluctant to take this forward. Was it just a reaction towards this initiative or

was this behaviour by FE principals the norm when change or managing change

becomes an issue? Could it be possible that all these political influences actually affect

the management of change in an adverse manner? Although Fforwm represented the

interests of college principals perhaps senior management still felt that they lacked

control over developments due to the external political influences exerted on FE

establishments. It may be possible that many principals felt that their words, actions or

deeds were in fact ignored by government and that their advice, expertise and general

wishes were not taken into account. However, it was suggested by many elite

interviewees that indeed this resistance by senior managers is quite normal and indeed

all aspects of change would be met in a similar manner - resistance. Thus, the

perceptions of these individuals were that principals and senior FE managers were not

effective change agents but effective change resistors.

Conclusions

Overall it can be seen that there are many forces at work impinging, influencing and

even changing policy direction and formation. Results indicate that both assumptive

worlds (the centralised and partnership model – Young and Mills, 1978) are indeed

evident. The initiative/policy under study was seen in a positive light, encompassing in

the main, both empowerment and performativity elements. This reason alone may be

why many politicians and policy actors found the All-Wales Modularisation and Credit

Framework initiative attractive in the early 1990s and why its concepts and principles

have re-emerged into the policy arena once again.

The initiative was perceived as empowering the student through providing choice and

flexibility but also covering issues of performativity through allowing employers, and

government, some control or influence over the skills required by the future workforce;

for economic prosperity. These factors can be seen in Welsh policy of today: ‘There is

no denying the crucial importance of skills to both our economy and to the life chances

of our citizens’ (DELLS, 2006, p.42). Indeed the document goes on to state that: ‘All Dr Jan Bardsley 11

our learning needs to be better adapted to the needs of employers and the economy’

(DELLS, 2006, p.43). Thus, lessons learnt from this earlier initiative, the All-Wales

Modularisation and Credit Framework can aid the development of the other Welsh

initiatives such as the Welsh Baccalaureate and the 14-19 Learning Pathways initiative.

The aim of the Learning Pathway initiative is ‘…to make sure that 95 per cent of young

by the age of 25 are ready for high-skilled employment or higher education by 2015’

(Estyn, 2006, p.1).

The advantages of addressing both empowerment and performativity issues appealed to

many interviewees. This together with cost effective controls for educational

establishments by greater sensitive output measurements through the use of credits,

together with establishing some ‘parity of esteem’ between academic and vocational

qualification, are the perceived benefits associated with the All-Wales Modularisation

and Credit Framework initiative. Again these issues are addressed in recent Welsh

policy - firstly output measurements: ‘We will continue to measure the productivity and

effectiveness of our work on the basis of established indicators (including qualification

attainment levels)’ (DELL, 2006, p.58). On the issue of ‘parity’ the Welsh Assembly

state:

The changes we have made to post-16 policy and funding over the past five

years have aimed to generate a better balance in the value placed on academic

and vocational qualifications. We intend to move further in this direction by

reducing academic-vocational divisions and making all learning routes relevant

to the world of work (DELLS, 2006, p.35).

Many of the benefits discussed above are perceived within the Welsh Baccalaureate

Qualification framework. ‘The Welsh baccalaureate qualification has much in common

with the Learning Pathways initiative… lessons learnt from the Welsh Baccalaureate

pilot centres have direct implications for the Learning Pathways (Estyn, 2006, p.2).

Indeed this report recommends that the Welsh Assembly Government should:

R11 review the use of performance indicators at 16 and 18 to focus more on Dr Jan Bardsley 12

scores rather than qualifications;

R12 establish a way to review and evaluate on a regular basis the suitability of

qualifications available to 14-19 learners in relation to the economic needs of

the country;

R13 prioritise the development of a credit framework in the most popular

qualifications for learners in the 14-19 age group;

R14 increase the speed at which commonly-used vocational qualifications

receive a credit rating so that learners can gain credit for partly-completed

qualifications;

R15 make sure that the lessons learnt from the Welsh Baccalaureate pilot

centres support providers in developing 14-19 Learning Pathways (Estyn, 2006,

pp. 4-5).

Conflict and tension was apparent between the majority of policy actors interviewed

with only one or two topics of consensus evident, although compromise was used in

order to progress. Thus, conflict and tension may be seen as a natural part of the policy

process. Perhaps it can be argued that this should be seen as one of the main policy

processes highlighted by the elite. Conflict, resulting from jostling for positions of

power and prestige, creating barriers to implementation and policy development,

overcome through efforts of negotiations and compromise. Undoubtedly this will be

relevant for the latest Welsh initiatives proposed by the Welsh Assembly; as perhaps

may be the issues of funding and assessment, with specific funding being used to push

a policy forward.

Within this study senior FE managers were perceived not as effective change agents but

effective change resistors. Therefore, the tools of control used by government,

especially funding, can be seen as mechanisms used to entice or indeed bully principals

into implementing change through various initiatives or policies. As Taylor and Rizvi

(et al, 1997, p.5) observed: ‘...policies serve to manage change’; but implementing

change does not necessarily equate with government directives. Thus, we see the two

faces or sides to the debate: control being necessary to enforce the wishes of the

government yet this very control changing the concepts of the initiative itself through

the process of conflict, tensions and interpretations by various interested parties. Dr Jan Bardsley 13

Consensus or compromise achieved when possible, to actually overcome some of these

tensions and ensure positive developments.

The results and findings from this study indicate that problems of a similar nature are

likely to be apparent for other initiatives/policies pending implementation, such as the

14-19 Learning Pathways. Negotiations, compromise and ensuring all stakeholders

have an active part in the decision making process may aid policy implementation.

However, the main conclusion drawn from this study is that without doubt, we will still

encounter conflict and confusion emanating from the inherent tensions between

performativity and empowerment. These are issues which remain relevant in policy

making today and are a constant factor in the management of change and, thus, a

potential barrier to policy implementation.

Dr Jan Bardsley 14

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