Chapter 6

Early Societies in the Americas and Oceania

Chapter 6: Early Societies in the America

n Early Societies of Mesoamerica q The Olmecs q Heirs of the Olmecs: the Maya q Maya Society and Religion q Heirs of the Olmecs: Teotihuacan

n Early Societies of South America q Early Andean Society and the Chavín Cult q Early Andean States: Mochica

n Early Societies of Oceania q Early Societies in Australia and New Guinea q The Peopling of the Pacific Islands

Why did civilization develop later in the Americas than in Southwest Asia?

Origins of Civilization in the Americas n The Americas were originally populated by peoples from Asia who moved during the last Ice Age – c. 13,000 B.C.E. and possibly as early as 20,000 B.C.E. when the ocean levels fell q from a group of only 25 original migrants that doubled every generation, a population of 10 million would result in 500 years

n By 9500 BCE people reached southernmost part of South America

Agriculture in the Americas n Plant domestication by 5000 B.C.E., as in Old World, by women n 100 different crops, including peppers, beans, avocados, gourds,

squash, tomatoes, and the grains amaranth and quinoa n Principal crops: ________, _______, and _______

q These crops require less labor than grain does – so there was always a large pool of people who were available to do labor projects (construct buildings, serve in standing armies, etc.)

n Principal domesticated animals: q _______ q _______ q NO draft animals (no development of wheeled vehicles)

Early Civilization in the Americas

n 2 major areas of complex cultural development: q 1. ______________ q 2. ______________

n Other areas of the Americas – people living as hunter­gatherers or semi­sedentary farmers and hunters

Early Mesoamerican Civilization:

n Several American civilizations arose between 1500 B.C.E. – 900 C.E. q Olmecs q Maya q Teotihuacan

n Later civilizations (Chapter 21) q Toltecs q Aztecs

Early Mesoamerican Civilization: The Olmecs, 1200-100 B.C.E.

n Olmec civilization appeared quite suddenly – i.e., without much evidence of gradual development in the archaeological record

n Irrigated agriculture n Monumental sculpture n Urbanism (ceremonial centers) n Elaborate religion n Beginnings of calendar and writing systems n “The Rubber People” (derived from the word “Olmec”)

Early Mesoamerican Civilization: Major Sites:

n Ceremonial Centers q San Lorenzo (1200­ 800 B.C.E.)

q La Venta (800­300 B.C.E.) n Huge 110 foot Great

Pyramid q Tres Zapotes (c. 400 ­ 100 B.C.E.)

Early Mesoamerican Civilization: The Olmecs

n Modern knowledge of the Olmecs comes entirely from archaeological evidence: q Pyramids q Jade objects (see B & Z, p. 138) q Obsidian objects q Axes q Figurines q Stone monuments q Palaces q Plazas q Temples q Ball courts q Human sacrifice q Drainage systems q Tombs Olmec Head, Basalt. 9’4” high;

10 tons. It probably took 1000 workers per head.

See also B & Z, p. 137.

Olmec Society

n Probably authoritarian in nature n Large class of conscripted laborers to construct ceremonial sites q Also tombs for rulers, temples, pyramids, drainage systems

Mysterious Decline of the Olmecs

n Ceremonial centers were destroyed and deserted

n No evidence of warfare n Revolution? n Civil war?

Early Mesoamerican Civilization: The Olmecs

n Olmecs have been called the ______________ of Mesoamerica

n After the Olmecs, the period from 150­900 C.E. was a great age of cultural achievement in Mesoamerica­ the Classic period q Maya in southern Mexico, Yucatan, and Guatemala q Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico

The Maya n Maya civilization encompassed modern Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and southern Mexico

n Huge cities discovered in 19th c.

n 300 BCE­900 CE n Terrace Farming

q Cacao beans n Hot chocolate n Currency

n Major ceremonial center at Tikal

The Maya, 300 B.C.E.-900 C.E. n Not a unified political state q Numerous independent “city­states” or confederations

q Centered on major rival Maya sites with monumental architecture (pyramids, plaza, citadels, ball courts) n Largest Maya city­states dominated neighboring city­states q Tikal (Guatemala) q Copán (Honduras) q Chichén Itzá (Mexico)

n Elite tombs with valuable artifacts (jade, pottery)

Maya Warfare

n Increasing competition and warfare between polities throughout Classic Period q Wars fought for captives, not territory q Elite captives were sacrificed q Commoners were enslaved

n Small kingdoms engaged in constant conflict until Chichén Itzá began to absorb captives q Some nevertheless chose death q Center of empire develops

Maya City-States

n Tikal (Guatemala) n Copán (Honduras) n Chichén Itzá (Mexico)

Tikal n Second largest and one of two most powerful Mayan city­states of Classic Period

n Height, 600­800 CE n Best known for elaborate architecture q Six enormous temple pyramids (Temple 4­ 229 ft tall)

q Acropolis, Plaza q 10 reservoirs for drinking water

n Ongoing war with neighboring states n Population c. 40,000

Copán n Western Honduras n Medium sized city­state; one of best preserved sites q Ball court (best preserved for Mayan Period) q Hieroglyphic stairway q Elaborate stone carvings of Mayan rulers and supernatural figures

n Majority of monuments built by 13 th ruler “18 Rabbit” 695­738 C.E. q Later captured and executed by a rival city

n Elaborate artifacts

Mayan Writing n Ideographs and a syllable­alphabet

q Most writings destroyed by Spanish conquerors q Deciphering work began in 1960s q Individual glyphs represent syllables or complete concepts q At present, partially translated by epigraphers and linguists

n Writing used for religious and political purposes (rather than economic) q Preservation of myths and astrological data q Used by elite to record the events of their rule; source of legitimization of

elite rule n Preserved mostly in stone carvings on monuments and stelae (mostly

political representations) q Pottery decorations also q Codices (folding paper books) mostly contain religious and astrological

information n Only four survive

n Popol Vuh: Mayan creation myth q Bentley & Ziegler, p. 143

Maya Religion n Importance of bloodletting rituals

q Human sacrifices followed after removal of fingers, piercing to allow blood flow

q Self­mutilation of tongues, earlobes q Association of blood with rain and agriculture q (Chapter opener – bloodletting rituals of September 683 C.E. at

funeral of Pacal, King of Maya city of Palenque) n Elaborate pantheon of gods

q Individual gods had numerous avatars based on cardinal direction, color, upper and lower world versions

q Major deities include Maize God, Rain God (Chak) and Death God (Xipi Totec)

q Rulers often appeared in clothing of gods on political monuments (legitimization of elite authority)

n Elaborate ritual schedule based on 260 day religious year in 52 year cycle

Mayan Ritual Calendar

n Complex math q Invention of “Zero”

n Calendar of 365.242 days (17 seconds off) q Solar calendar of 365 days q Ritual calendar of 260 days q 52 year cycle

n Management of calendar lends authority to priesthood q Timing of auspicious moments for agriculture

The Maya Ball Game

n Ritual form of ball game n High­ranking captives, prisoners of war contestants

n Execution of losers immediately follows the match

n Bloodletting ritual for the gods

The End of Maya Civilization

n Maya city­states were abandoned or destroyed between 800­900 C.E.

n Possible causes: q Disruption of Mesoamerican trade when Teotihuacan fell

q Geologic evidence for increasing drought after 800 C.E.

q Environmental pressure caused by overpopulation q Epidemic disease q Possible internal revolt by non­elite population

Classic Era Culture and Society in Mesoamerica, 200-900

n The Maya – Mesoamerican Lowlands n Teotihuacan – Highlands of Mexico

Teotihuacan, 200 B.C.E. – 750 C.E. n Large Mesoamerican city­state

q Advantageous location near obsidian q Cloth and pottery soon also economically important q Large and important religious center q Dominated most of Valley of Mexico q Extensive trade network

n Height 450­650 C.E. q Regional towns were abandoned as people moved to the city

(ceremonial center) q Control of a wide ranging economic empire q Population 125,000­200,000

n Centralized government – Headed likely by a semi­divine priests and/or ruler.

n City supported by agricultural surplus q Chinampas (“floating gardens”) n Maize, beans, squash

The Valley of Mexico n Highland mountain valley surrounded by volcanoes (3,000 m

elevation) q Rich soils, swamps and lake systems

n Idea for raised field “chinampas” agriculture q Maize, beans, squash

q Abundant raw materials n Especially obsidian

n Adequate rainfall and temperate environment q Rich environment (agricultural surplus) supported large population

(as many as 2 million by 16 th century C.E.)

Teotihuacan Culture n Pyramids, temples n Sacrifices n Use of sports like “the Ball Game” both as entertainment and religious nature

n Collapsed c. 650 C.E. q War? Invasion?

Post-Classic Period in Mesoamerica, 900-1500

n The Toltecs q Power vacuum left by collapse of Classic Maya culture filled by neighboring societies

q 987 C.E.: Mexican Toltecs invade from highlands; establish elite, non­Mayan dynasty in Yucatan lowlands

n The Aztecs n After 1500: Spanish Conquest n (Chapter 21)

Andean Societies

n Migration into South America c. 12,000 BCE

n Climate improved c. 8000 BCE

n Largely independent from Mesoamerica

n Highly individualized due to geography

Andean Civilization

n A peculiar geography of complex micro­regions with extreme changes in altitude and temperature q narrow strip on the western coast, cut by a few rivers that flow to the Pacific

q the high Andes, where some peaks rise to more than 15,000 feet

q between the 2 lie high valleys and steppes, or puna, that form the highlands

n The cool uplands supported potatoes and maize n Good grazing for llamas and alpacas, the “sheep of the Andes” n Harsh environments forced human inhabitants to organize labor

efficiently in order to produce enough food to live

Early Developments in Andean Civilization

n 3000­2000 B.C.E. ­ permanent agricultural villages were established in the Andean highlands and on the arid Pacific coast

n New discovery – c. 2600 B.C.E. – civilization in Peru at city of Caral

Early Developments and the Rise of Chavín

n Chavín – the 1 st major urban civilization in South America q 900­250 B.C.E. q ceremonial centers with large stone buildings q in the highlands and on the coast q the most important center was Chavín de Huantar in the Peruvian highlands

Chavín Civilization

n The essential characteristics of later Andean Civilization q Architecture

n Platforms of packed earth used for ritual purposes and residences

n Platform at Chavín de Huantar known as the Castillo – 250 feet on each side and 50 feet high q Hollow interior housed the remains of

royal ancestors q Statecraft – kings q Decorative elements – serpents,

condors, jaguars, humans q Textile production

Chavín Cult

n New religion in central Andes, 900­300 BCE n South America, contemporary Peru q Little known about particulars of religion q Intricate stone carvings

End of Chavín Civilization

n Civilization collapsed around 200 B.C.E. q Warfare disrupted trade

n 400+ years later, other major Andean Civilizations: q Moche, 200­700 C.E. n Undisturbed Moche royal tombs at Sipan

q Tiahuanaco, c. 200 C.E. – 1200 C.E. q Nazca (not easily dated) q Chimu, c. 850 C.E. – 1460s q Incas, c. 1400 C.E.

The Mochica State

n Valley of the Moche River n Dominated northern Peru, 200­700 CE n Painting survives n One of many states in region, none able to consolidate into empire

Moche

n Moche culture in the north coastal region of Peru, c. 200 C.E.

n Extensive irrigated agriculture – maize, quinoa, beans, manioc

n Society led by priests and military leaders n Artistic work known from Moche graves – elaborate textiles, gold and silver jewelry

n Decline of the Moche attributed to natural disasters in the 6 th century and to pressure from the warlike Wari people in the 8 th century

Oceania

n 60,000 B.C.E. Human migration to Australia and New Guinea

n Prehistoric land bridges, lower seas permit migration

n Outrigger canoes for open­sea travel n Early hunter­gatherer societies in Australia n Early agriculture in New Guinea, c. 3000 BCE

Lapita Peoples, 1500-500 B.C.E.

n Found throughout Pacific Islands

n Agriculture, animal herding

n Political organization based on chiefdoms

n Trade over open ocean declines 500 BCE q Greater independence of

settlements

Americas and Oceania

n In what ways did the civilizations of the Americas and Oceania resemble those of the eastern hemisphere?

n In what ways did the civilizations of the Americas resemble those of the eastern hemisphere?