Chapter 6

Persons with Learning Disabilities

Learning Disabilities

• Samuel Kirk, 1962 “…A retardation, disorder or delayed

development in one or more of the processes of speech, language, reading, writing, arithmetic, or other school subjects resulting from a psychological handicap caused by possible cerebral dysfunction and/or emotional or behavioral disturbances. It is not the result of mental retardation, sensory deprivation, or cultural and instructional factors.”

Specific Learning Disabilities Act of 1969

• Disorder in basic psychological processes– Spoken and written language

• Manifested in specific disorders – Listening, thinking, talking, reading, writing, spelling,

or arithmetic• Included were perceptual handicaps, brain injury

minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, developmental aphasia

• Not included were learning problems attributed to:– Visual, hearing, or motor handicaps– Mental retardation, emotional disturbances– Environmental disadvantage

IDEA (101-476) I

• Specific learning disability– Disorder in one or more of the basic

psychological processes involved in• Understanding or using language, spoken or

written– May manifest in an imperfect ability to

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IDEA (101-476) II

• The term learning disability includes– Perceptual handicaps– Brain injury– Minimal brain dysfunction– Dyslexia– Developmental aphasia

• The term learning disability does not include learning difficulties resulting primarily from– Visual, hearing, or motor handicaps– Mental retardation or emotional disturbance– Environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage(U.S. Office of Education, 1977, p. 65083)

Severe Discrepancy

• Discrepancy between student’s academic performance and his or her estimated or assumed ability or potential– Based on assumption of overall average to

above average IQ– A discrepancy of two or more years below

expected performance levels in one academic area

– Parameters not specified nor authorized by federal definition

Controversial Definitions

• National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 1981– Heterogenous groups– Concomitant handicapping conditions

• Learning Disabilities Association of America, 1986– Chronic condition of neurological origin

varying in manifestation and degree• Affecting self-esteem, education, vocation,

socialization, and/or daily living activities

History of the Field Learning Disabilities

• Four phases– Foundation (1800-1930)– Transition (1930-1960)– Integration (1960-1980)– Current (1980-present)

Foundation Phase1800-1930

• Emphasis on brain research

• Hinshelwood- “word blindness”, brain defect• Goldstein- behavioral and perceptual impairments

resulting from brain damage• Strauss & Werner- Wayne County Training

School– Mental retardation attributed to brain damage

rather than genetic factors– Characteristics suggested need for instructional

tactics

Transition Phase1930-1960

• Emphasis on clinical study, assessment, and remediation strategies– Orton- cerebral dominance, dyslexia– Fernald- remedial programs

• VAKT- multisensory approach to learning

– Kephart- perceptual motor theory of learning– Frostig- visual perceptual skills

• Developmental Test of Visual Perception

Integration Phase(1960-1980)

• Established disability area in US schools– Samuel Kirk- popularized term learning

disabilities– Specific Learning Disabilities Act of 1969– Education for All Handicapped Children

Act of 1975,PL 94-142- forerunner to IDEA• Bill of Rights for children with disabilities

– Formation of The Council for Learning Disabilities

Current Phase(1980- present)

• Turbulent transitions and challenges– Movement for full inclusion– Culturally and linguistically diverse learners– Computer technology, issues and trends– Impact of attention deficit disorder research– Controversy over assessment and the use of

the severe discrepancy criteria for placement

Prevalence

• 2.8 million pupils ages 6-21• Largest category of special education, slightly

less than 50% of all individuals receiving service• Dramatic increase since the 1970’s

– Possible reasons• Ambiguous parameters• Increase public awareness• Improved diagnostic and assessment capabilities• High social acceptance of the label

Etiology I

• Acquired trauma– Injury to the central nervous system

• Prenatal- smoking, drugs, alcohol• Perinatal- anoxia, low birth weight,

prematurity, difficult delivery, forcep trauma• Postnatal- high fever, stroke, concussion,

TBI

Etiology II

• Genetic/Hereditary Influences– Familiality studies are not conclusive

• Suggest speech, reading, and language difficulties may occur in certain families but cannot eliminate the influence of environmental reasons

– Heritability studies compare twins• Certain types of learning problems are more

common among identical twins than fraternal twins

Etiology III

• Biochemical abnormalities– Fiengold theory- proposed that allergic

reaction to food products contributed to hyperactive behavior; not substantiated within the scientific community

– Cott’s megavitamin theory- learning disability resulting from vitamin deficiency; not substantiated by scientific community

Etiology IV

• Environmental possibilities – Contributing to neurological dysfunction

• Low socioeconomic status• Malnutrition• Lack of access to health care

– Quality of instruction• Poor teachers and inadequate instruction• Lack of direct systematic instruction

Characteristics (Lerner, 2000)

• Disorders of attention• Poor motor abilities• Psychological process deficits• Information/processing problems• Oral language difficulties• Reading and written language difficulties• Quantitative disorders• Social skill deficits

Learning Disabilities

• Reading• Mathematics• Written language• Spoken language• Short term memory• Working memory• Metacognition• Attributions

Academic Characteristics

• Deficits in:Reading

Written language

Mathematics

Oral language

Disability in Reading

• Reading comprehension– Cannot recall facts, sequences, or main

themes

• Word recognition errors– Omissions, insertions, substitutions, reversals

• Oral reading– Insecurity, loses place

• Word analysis skills– Phonological awareness difficulties, dyslexia

Disability Area Mathematics

• Computation skills

• Word problems

• Spatial relationships

• Writing or copying shapes

• Telling time

• Understanding fractions/decimals

• Measuring

Disability in Written Language

• Spelling– Omission or substitution of letters– Auditory memory and discrimination difficulties

• Handwriting– Absence of fine motor skills– Lack of understanding of spatial relationships

• Composition– Sentence structure– Paragraph organization– Complexity of stories

Disability in Memory

• Short-term memory– Recalling in correct order, of either aurally or visually

presented information shortly after hearing or seeing the items

• Working memory– Retaining information while simultaneously engaging

in another cognitive activity– Success in reading and math depend on this ability– Crucial for word recognition and reading

comprehension

Disability in Spoken Language

• Oral Expression– Word choice– Understanding complex sentence structures– Responding to questions– Mechanical deficits

• Syntax, semantics, phonology

– Pragmatics• Conversational skills• Nonverbal language

Disability in Metacognition

• Lack of awareness of strategies and resources needed to perform effectively

• Inability to monitor, evaluate, and adjust performance to ensure successful task completion

Disability in Attributions

• Students may attribute success to situations beyond their control such as luck rather than to their own efforts– Chronic failure makes success seem

unattainable – Learned helplessness (Seligman,1992)– Passive learners

• Deficits in strategic learning behaviors

Situational Problems

• Social and Emotional– Lower self-esteem, poor self-concept, social

imperceptiveness, and peer rejection

• Attention and Hyperactivity– Difficulty staying on task, completing

assignments, and following directions

Assessment

• Norm-referenced

• Criterion-referenced

• Curriculum based

• Portfolio

Figure 6.5 Educational Placements of Students with Learning Disabilities

Instructional Approaches

• Cognitive Training– Self Instruction– Mnemonic Strategies

• Direct Instruction– Skill training– Task analysis

• Learning Strategies– Strategies Intervention Model (SIM)

Teaching Suggestions

• Highly structured environment

• Clear expectations

• Positive reinforcement of appropriate social skills

• Opportunity for success

• Supportive atmosphere

• Safety from embarrassment

A Child at Risk(Gargiulo & Kilgo, 2001)

• Maternal alcohol and drug abuse• Home environment lacking in adequate stimulation• Chronic poverty• Oxygen deprivation• Accidents and head trauma• Inadequate maternal and infant nutrition• Prematurity• Rh incompatibility• Low birth weight• Prolonged or unusual delivery

Preschool Curriculum Models

• Developmental/cognitive model

• Behavioral curriculum model

• Functional curriculum model

• Combination approach

Transition PlanningSmith et al. (1993)

• Preparation for high school content classes

• Preparation for high school exiting tests

• Counseling for daily crises

• Preparation for independent living

• Preparation for postsecondary training

• Preparation for employment or military service

Post-secondary Accommodations(Section 504 of PL 93-112)

• Adjustment in Evaluation Procedures– Extra time on exams– Distraction free setting– Oral examinations

• Modifications in Program Requirements– Waiving or substituting courses– Decreasing academic load

• Auxiliary Aid Provisions– Tape recording lectures, note takers– Assistive technology (screen readers, speech to text)

Technology in the Classroom

• Start with curriculum, not the technology• Use as an instructional tool: not a toy• Provides guided practice and immediate

feedback• Customize technology to the student’s needs• Use to enrich and extend the curriculum• Provide opportunity and encouragement to

practice using technology to empower and achieve greater levels of independence

Trends, Issues, and Controversies

• The full inclusion movement verses a continuum of services model

• Goals 2000, Educate America Act, 1994 has created trends for higher graduation standards as well as greater teacher accountability for student performance

• 1997 IDEA inclusion of students with disabilities in state and district-wide assessments

• Impact of the reauthorization of IDEA in 2004