Chapter 6: Learning

Case Study: The Little Albert Experiment

Section 1: Classical Conditioning

Section 2: Operant Conditioning

Section 3: Cognitive Factors in Learning

Section 4: The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn

Experiment: Applying What You’ve Learned

The Little Albert experiment showed that emotional reactions such as

fear can be taught through classical conditioning.

• Eleven-month-old Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat rather than be amused by it.

• Psychologists achieved this by pairing the rat with something that Albert would find instinctively frightening.

The Experiment

Case Study: The Little Albert Experiment

• After they paired the rat with loud noises, Albert showed a fear of the rat even when there was no noise.

• Albert’s fear spread to similar objects.

• By today’s standards, the experiment was unethical.

The Results

What do you think?

• How did Watson and Rayner condition Little Albert to fear white rats?

• Do you think you have learned to fear or enjoy certain things because of conditioning or association? Explain.

Classical Conditioning• Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov pioneered research into

a form of learning known as classical conditioning. In classical conditioning, one stimulus causes a response that is usually caused by another stimulus.

• Classical conditioning can help people adapt to the environment and can help eliminate troubling fears or other behaviors.

Section 1 at a Glance

Reading Focus• What are the basic principles of classical conditioning?• How might classical conditioning help people or animals adapt to the

environment?• What are some applications of classical conditioning?

Main IdeaClassical conditioning is a form of learning that involves the use of a stimulus to generate a specific response.

Classical Conditioning

Why do people have an immediate, physical response to a picture of pizza?

• Conditioning is a type of learning that involves stimulus-response connections.

• Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning in which one stimulus calls forth the response that is usually called forth by another stimulus.

• Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov used dogs in his studies of classical conditioning.

• He trained the dogs to associate the sound of a bell with food.

• They learned that the sound of the bell meant food was coming.

Pavlov’s Dogs

Principles of Classical Conditioning

• Unconditioned stimulus: a stimulus that causes a response that is automatic, not learned

• Unconditioned response: caused by an unconditioned stimulus

• Conditioned response: a learned response to a neutral stimulus

• Conditioned stimulus: a previously neutral stimulus that causes a conditioned response

Stimulus and Response

Answer: One stimulus calls forth the response that is usually called forth by another stimulus.

Summarize

How does classical conditioning occur?

Reading Check

Taste Aversions• Taste aversion: learned response

to a particular food• One-trial learning

Spontaneous Recovery• Spontaneous recovery:

Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after some time has passed

Extinction• Extinction: Disappearance of

conditioned response when unconditioned stimulus no longer follows conditioned stimulus

Generalization and Discrimination

• Generalization: The tendency to respond in the same way to stimuli that have similar characteristics

• Discrimination: The act of responding differently to stimuli that are not similar to each other

Adapting to the Environment

Answer: Students should cite examples of taste aversion, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, or discrimination.

Describe

Give three examples of ways that classical conditioning can help people adapt to their

environment.

Reading Check

Flooding and Systematic Desensitization

• In flooding, a person is exposed to the harmless stimulus until fear responses to that stimulus are extinguished.

• With systematic desensitization, people learn relaxation techniques and then, while they are relaxed, they are gradually exposed to the stimulus they fear.

Counterconditioning• In counterconditioning, a pleasant

stimulus is paired repeatedly with a fearful one, counteracting the fear.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

Answer: flooding, systematic desensitization, counterconditioning

Identify

What are three applications of classical conditioning?

Reading Check

Learning from a Virtual Rat

To research learning and conditioning, psychologists often design laboratory

experiments with animals such as rats. But experiments with live animals can

be costly and time-consuming. Why not take advantage of computer technology

and use a virtual rat?

Current Research in Psychology

• “Sniffy the Virtual Rat” allows students to design lab experiments in a virtual environment with a virtual rat.

• To create “Sniffy,” researchers studied how real rats move and learn.

• Students can use the program to design and run classical conditioning experiments.

• A virtual rat is less costly than a real animal.

• They never get tired, are always hungry, and learn more quickly, saving researchers time and effort.

Thinking Critically• What are some advantages to using a virtual rat like

Sniffy?• What drawbacks might there be to using a virtual rat in an

experiment instead of a real one?

Operant Conditioning• Psychologist B.F. Skinner helped pioneer research into a

form of learning known as operant conditioning, in which individuals learn from the consequences of their actions.

• Operant conditioning depends on the use of reinforcements and a schedule to execute them.

• The principles of operant conditioning can be applied to help people or animals learn to combine a series of simple steps or actions to form complex behaviors.

Section 2 at a Glance

Reading Focus• How are operant conditioning and reinforcement related?• What are the main types of reinforcers?• How do rewards and punishments shape learning?• How do schedules of reinforcement influence learning?• What are some applications of operant conditioning?

Main IdeaOperant conditioning occurs when people or animals have learned to respond to a certain situation.

Operant Conditioning

How can a squirrel learn how to water ski?

• In operant conditioning, people and animals learn to do certain things—and not to do others—because of the results of what they do.

• They learn from the consequences of their actions.• In operant conditioning, voluntary responses are conditioned.• B.F. Skinner studied operant conditioning by using the “Skinner box.”• His experiment demonstrated reinforcement, or the process by

which a stimulus (food) increases the chances that a preceding behavior (a rat pressing a lever) will occur again.

• Knowledge of results is often all the reinforcement that people need to learn new skills.

Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement

Answer: In operant conditioning, people and animals learn to do certain things because of the results of what they do. Reinforcement increases the chances that such behavior will occur again.

Describe

How does reinforcement result in operant conditioning?

Reading Check

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

• Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that function due to the biological makeup of an organism.

• Secondary reinforcers are learned by being paired with primary reinforcers.

• Money is a secondary reinforcer because we have learned that it may be exchanged for primary reinforcers like food and shelter.

Positive and Negative Reinforcers

• Positive reinforcers increase the frequency of a behavior.

• In positive reinforcement, a person receives something he or she wants following the behavior.

• Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of a behavior when they are removed.

• In negative reinforcement, a behavior is reinforced because something unwanted stops happening or is removed following the behavior.

Types of Reinforcers

Answer: Primary reinforcers are those that people and animals do not need to be taught to value, such as food and water. Secondary reinforcers, like money, must be learned. Positive reinforcers, such as food and fun, increase the frequency of the behavior they follow when they are applied. Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of the behavior that follows when they are removed. They are unpleasant, and include discomfort and fear.

Summarize

Describe the four main types of reinforcers.

Reading Check

Rewards• Like positive reinforcement,

rewards help encourage learning.

• Some psychologists, however, prefer positive reinforcement because the concept of reinforcement can be explained without trying to guess what an organism will find rewarding.

Punishments• Punishments are quite different

from negative reinforcers.

• Punishments are unwanted events that decrease the frequency of the behavior they follow.

• Punishments tend to work only when they are guaranteed.

• Most psychologists believe it is preferable to reward children for desirable behavior than punish them for unwanted behavior.

Rewards and Punishments

Answer: Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of a behavior by being removed, whereas punishments, when applied, decrease the frequency of the behavior they follow.

Contrast

Explain how punishments are different from negative reinforcers.

Reading Check

• The effectiveness of a reinforcement depends on the schedule of reinforcement—when and how often the reinforcement occurs.

• Continuous reinforcement is the reinforcement of a behavior every time the behavior occurs.

• Continuous reinforcement is not always practical or possible.

• The alternative is partial reinforcement, which means a behavior is not reinforced every time the behavior occurs.

Continuous and Partial Reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed-interval schedule: a fixed amount of time must elapse between reinforcements

• Variable-interval schedule: varying amounts of time go by between reinforcements

Interval Schedules

Ratio Schedule• Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement

occurs after a fixed number of responses

• Variable-ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses

Extinction in Operant Conditioning

• In operant conditioning, extinction results from repeated performances of the response without reinforcement.

Answer: because timing is unpredictable; reinforcement can come at any time

Infer

Why are both variable-interval schedules and variable-ratio schedules successful?

Reading Check

Shaping and Chaining• Shaping is a way of teaching

complex behaviors in which one first reinforces small steps in the total activity.

• Chaining is combining the steps of a sequence to progress toward a final action.

• Chaining can be forward or backward.

• Chaining can be used to teach complex behavior patterns to animals.

Programmed Learning• Programmed learning is based on

shaping and chaining.

• Developed by B.F. Skinner, it assumes that any task can be broken down into small steps.

• Programmed learning does not involve punishments.

• Instead, it reinforces correct responses.

Applications of Operant Conditioning

Answer: shaping, chaining, programmed learning

Identify Supporting Details

What are three examples of applications of operant conditioning?

Reading Check

Cognitive Factors in Learning• Cognitive psychologists focus on the mental aspects of

learning and are interested in what people or animals know, not just what they do.

• Cognitive learning is based on the idea that people and animals can learn by thinking or by watching others.

• Some techniques for behavioral modification are based on the ideas of operant conditioning and cognitive factors.

Section 3 at a Glance

Reading Focus• What is latent learning?• In what situations does observational learning take place?• What learning principles are involved in behavior modification?

Main IdeaCognitive learning focuses on the mental aspects of learning, such as obtaining, processing, and organizing information. Cognitive psychologists are interested not only in what people do, but also what they know.

Cognitive Factors in Learning

What do tamales have to do with Christmas?

• One kind of cognitive learning is latent learning, which is learning that remains hidden until it is needed.

• Most psychologists believe that much learning takes place without reinforcement.

Latent Learning

Answer: Latent learning is revealed when it is needed.

Recall

When is latent learning revealed?

Reading Check

• Observational learning is knowledge and skills acquired by observing and imitating others.

• Modeling is basically a kind of imitation.

• Vicarious reinforcement is the ability to learn from the experiences of another.

• Observational learning and modeling account for much human learning.

Modeling

Observational Learning

• Television is a major source of informal observational learning.

• Most health professionals agree that media violence contributes to aggression.

The Effects of Media Violence

Click on the image to play the Interactive.

Answer: child learning to speak, eat, and play from parents

Describe

What are three examples of observational learning?

Reading Check

Token Economics• People are “paid” to act correctly by earning rewards that can be

cashed in for treats, merchandise, or privileges.

Classroom Discipline• Teachers are taught to pay attention to students when they are

behaving appropriately and to ignore misbehavior that is not harmful to themselves or others.

Behavior Modification

Personal Contracts• A personal contract is a personal behavior modification technique. • It works by first identifying a behavior you want to change, setting a

goal for a new behavior, and creating a system of rewards or punishments that encourage the new behavior.

Answer: classroom discipline—misbehaving students may be separated from the rest of the class; token economies—people are “paid” to act correctly by earning rewards; personal contracts—people can create a system of rewards or punishments to alter their behavior

Explain

How are learning principles used to modify behavior?

Reading Check

Pathways to Rewards

Pathways to Rewards is a program that seeks to help improve the lives of

public housing residents in Chicago. The program uses the principles of token

economies and has proved to be highly successful in helping people modify

their behavior through a system of individual goals and rewards.

Psychology in Today’s World

• The Pathways to Rewards program is for residents of Henry Horner Homes in Chicago.

• Residents set monthly goals and establish the steps needed to reach them.

• Adults and children may participate in the program.

• Participants earn points for meeting their goals.

• The points can be redeemed for rewards such as merchandise, bill-paying assistance, and health club membership.

• At the end of 2007, 58 percent of eligible residents had enrolled in the program.

Thinking Critically• Why do you think this program is successful?• Some people have criticized the Pathways to Rewards

program as being bribes for good behavior. How do you view this criticism?

The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn• The PQ4R method is a study method based on the work

of educational psychologist Francis P. Robinson. Robinson believed that students will learn more when they take an active approach to learning.

• The PQ4R method includes these six steps: preview, question, read, reflect, recite, and review.

Section 4 at a Glance

Reading Focus• When should you preview and question new material?• Why is it important to read, review, recite, and reflect on material?

Main IdeaThe PQ4R method for studying is a system of active learning based on the work of an educational psychologist.

The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn

Have educational psychologists created an easy way to study and learn new material?

Question• You can create learning goals by writing questions about the chapter

after you preview it.• One way to write questions is to read the headings or the first

sentence of each paragraph and write a question about it.

Preview• Previewing a textbook means getting a general picture of the material

before you start to read.• Many textbooks are designed to encourage previewing. • Previewing helps form a cognitive map of a chapter.

Preview and Question

Answer: Both take place before a person starts reading.

Compare

How are the steps of previewing and questioning similar?

Reading Check

Read• Read the chapter with the goal of

answering the questions you wrote.

• As you read, jot down a few key words that will remind you of the answer.

Recite• After you have answered your

questions, recite the answers out loud or silently to yourself.

• You can recite alone or with a study group. Both are effective.

Reflect• Relate new information to old

information.

• Relate new information to events in your own life or to people you know.

Review• Learning that occurs regularly and

is distributed over time is distributed learning.

• Learning that occurs all at one time is massed learning, or cramming.

Read, Reflect, Recite, and Review

Answer: read, reflect, recite, review

Summarize

What are the “four Rs” in the PQ4R method?

Reading Check

Reinforcement and DiscouragementHow can positive reinforcement and discouragement affect people’s behavior and performance?

• You will work with classmates to conduct an experiment on the number of sit-ups a person can do in three different situations: with no feedback, with positive reinforcement, and with discouragement.

1. Introduction

Experiment: Applying What You’ve Learned

• Find about 30 students from another class to be research subjects.

• Do not reveal the purpose of the study.

• Randomly assign the students to three groups.

• Assign roles for running the experiment.

2. Preparing for the Experiment

• Follow the Experiment Schedule.• On Day 1, Group A is the control

group.• On Day 1, Group B will receive

encouragement and positive reinforcement.

• On Day 1, Group C will receive discouragement.

• On Days 2 and 3, the groups will rotate to different stations according to the schedule.

3. Conducting the Experiment

Experiment (con’t.)

• Compare each participant’s performance at each station.

• Discuss the experiment with the study participants.

• Revisit your hypothesis and draw some conclusions about the effects of positive reinforcement and discouragement on behavior.

4. Analysis and Conclusion