chapter 6: language and its effects on the reader part 3 discovering meaning: the importance of...

Chapter 6: Language and its effects on the reader

• Part 3 Discovering Meaning: The Importance of Language


In this chapter, we will be concerned with language in prose writing—with words and the effect the writer intends them to have on us.


Chapter objectives: Denotation and connotation

Figurative language (metaphors, similes, and personification)Language misused and abused

Denotation and Connotation

Much of our pleasure in reading derives from savoring the emotional associations such efforts afford us.


Word choice, or diction

Some words are meant to arouse positive feelings, some are meant to be neutral or literal, while others are meant to convey a negative impression.


• Connotation:

The cluster of suggestions, ideas, or emotional associations a word conjures up.

To understand the connotation of a word, extensive reading is required and a willingness to consult the dictionary when a word is not understood.

• Denotation:

The literal or explicit meaning of a word; often called the dictionary definition.

Two elements in word choice:


If we pay only attention to the denotation of words, our understanding is limited to the surface meaning. Connotation extends the meaning beyond the surface which helps us to see more in what we read—the implications and association beyond the merely literal.

Denotation and ConnotationConnotation and Synonyms

Words may appear to be synonyms but actually are not.


Go to Practice Exercise 2 on p. 191

Study the cartoon found on the page.

Explain in your own words the humor of the cartoon. Does the humor rely on a problem with denotation or with connotation?


Possible response to Practice Exercise 2 on p. 191

The woman who is speaking has a very different interpretation of what the word saving denotes. The newspaper headline refers to accumulating savings (savings accounts, investments, putting money aside), whereas the woman thinks that saving means buying shoes on sale.

Denotation and ConnotationConnotation and Levels of Language

Levels of language also influence connotation.

Denotation and ConnotationConnotative Restrictions and the Importance of Context

Comprehension suffers when the reader perceives a different meaning to the word.

Thus, personal interpretation is one problem with connotation.


Often, students consult a thesaurus when writing summaries or other assignments.

A thesaurus treats all synonyms as if they were interchangeable, with equal denotative and connotative values


Often, connotative values of words are restricted to specific contexts.

Being able to choose the right word depends on understanding the context of the way the word is used.


Go to Practice Exercise 3 on p. 193

In your own words, explain the connotative restrictions in these three words. Specifically, to what kind of person (age and gender, for example), do these words usually refer to? Consult an unabridged dictionary if necessary.

spry

debonair

demure

Denotation and Connotationspry This word, meaning “unexpected speed

and energy of motion,” usually refers to old people or animals.

debonair Meaning “handsome, suave, and worldly,” this word is associated with an adult man.

demure This word has a positive connotation and means modest and reserved in manner and behavior; it is restricted to a young girl or to a young woman.

Denotation and ConnotationConnotative Restrictions

In addition to the positive or negative “charge” that words can convey, some words in English are restricted to describe a particular group.

Words are powerful and through experience and practice, the word bank increases for the reader.

Denotation and ConnotationHow Denotation and Connotation Work Together

When examining a passage for denotative and connotative words, look first at the major words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

Nouns are necessary to identify the thing or person or idea being talked about.

Connotative words are apt to be verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

Denotation and ConnotationConnotation in Fiction

In fiction, a writer may use descriptive details that are designed to evoke in the reader a particular emotional response to the characters.

These details help you both to visualize and assess the character.


See p. 196 the “Critical Thinking Exercise”

What does the word crusade mean to Muslims?

What does it connote to Westerners?

Figurative Language

The use of a figure of speech refers to the use of language not in its literal sense, but in a metaphorical or imaginative way.

Figures of speech are common in poetry but are also used to employ immediacy or drama to writing or to create a mental image, to establish a mood, or to clarify a difficult concept.

Figurative Language

Metaphors A direct and imaginative comparison

Similes An imaginative comparison using “like” or “as”

Personification A comparison in which something nonliving is described as if it were human

Figurative LanguageMetaphors and similes both represent imaginative comparisons between two essentially unlike things.

A metaphor refers to a direct comparison, in which a particular quality or characteristic of one thing (the figurative) is transferred to another (the literal).

To analyze a metaphor, you need first to identify the literal subject. Then, to identify what the literal subject is compared to. It reinforces the idea that is being described.

Figurative LanguageMetaphors and similes both represent imaginative comparisons between two essentially unlike things.

A simile is an imaginative comparison stated indirectly, usually with words “like,” “as,” “as though,” “as if,” and occasionally “seem.”The metaphor is considered to be

stronger than the simile because it is directly understood than to be inferred.

Figurative LanguageFigurative Language and the Imagination

Figures of speech serve to enhance the reading experience. Writers used their imagination to extend the experience through the reader’s mind.

Figurative LanguageFigurative Language and Inferences

When the writer only suggests the comparison, the reader has to infer what is meant by the comparison.

Figurative LanguageThe most common uses of Metaphors and Similes:

to provide a visual image

to establish a mood or situation to reinforce an observation

to clarify a difficult scientific concept

to persuade or convince

Figurative Language

Personification

Something inanimate or nonhuman is given human attributes or feelings.

Figurative LanguageGo to p. 203 and do Practice Exercise 6.Doing this exercise and the next two (Exs. 7 and 8) will require some analysis. Use paper to note your ideas.

First, decide whether the excerpt represents a simile, a metaphor, or personification.

Then, decide what the literal subject is and what it is metaphorically being compared to.

Finally, briefly explain the meaning.

Figurative LanguageAnswers to p. 203, Practice Exercise 6.1.First, decide whether the excerpt represents a simile, a metaphor, or personification.2.Then, decide what the literal subject is and what it is metaphorically being compared to. 3.Finally, briefly explain the meaning.

1. MetaphorThe butterflies were small and colorful and filled the air.

2. MetaphorThe visual figure “ribbon” refers to the river; it complements and extends the adjective “slender” and emphasizes its narrowness.

Figurative Language3. Simile The students displayed little

energy in the hot classroom.4. Simile The woman’s life is narrow and

limiting; she is trapped.5. Personification Regret is compared to an

insistent and cold woman.

Figurative Language6. Metaphor Ultima’s eyes are keen, like

those of an owl, a bird known for its keen ability to spot prey from afar.

7. Simile This figure of speech reinforces

the way gamblers attach themselves to slot machines for hours at a time.

8. Simile The marauders left nothing after

they plundered the countryside.

Figurative LanguageGo to p. 204 and do Practice Exercise 7.1.First, decide whether the excerpt represents a simile, a metaphor, or personification or more than one figure of speech.2.Then, decide what the literal subject is and what it is metaphorically being compared to. 3.Finally, briefly explain the meaning.

Figurative LanguageAnswers to p. 204, Practice Exercise 7.1.First, decide whether the excerpt represents a simile, a metaphor, or personification or more than one figure of speech.2.Then, decide what the literal subject is and what it is metaphorically being compared to. 3.Finally, briefly explain the meaning.

1. Metaphors“Frosty” and “steely” suggest that Miss Emily was a coldly stern woman.

2. MetaphorAmerica is compared to a large, friendly dog. The nation is clumsy in foreign affairs but also displays good humor and desire to be liked.

Figurative Language3. Metaphor The huge influx of immigrants

coming into Paterson couldn’t be stopped.

4. Similes Her skin is tight, and her eyes

are small, piercing, and cold.5. Simile Just when the prisoner thinks he

has survived one danger, an even bigger one presents itself.

Figurative Language6. Simile Walking in long skirts in the

snow was awkward and clumsy, like trying to walk while wearing a bedspread.

7. Metaphors Sean and Lauren’s marriage is

shattered and can’t be put back together. Lauren’s articulateness is beyond what Sean can comprehend.

Figurative LanguageGo to p. 206 and do Practice Exercise 8.1.First, decide whether the excerpt represents a simile, a metaphor, or personification or more than one figure of speech.2.Then, decide what the literal subject is and what it is metaphorically being compared to. 3.Finally, briefly explain the meaning.

Figurative LanguageAnswers to p. 206, Practice Exercise 8.1.First, decide whether the excerpt represents a simile, a metaphor, or personification or more than one figure of speech.2.Then, decide what the literal subject is and what it is metaphorically being compared to. 3.Finally, briefly explain the meaning.

1. MetaphorsThe references to a football field, a desktop, and a tennis court describe the fact pace at which Louisiana wetlands are disappearing and help the reader visualize the loss.

Figurative Language2. Simile

The narrator’s feelings of repugnance and guilt toward her lover are minimal.

3. PersonificationHockey originated in Canada as a working class sport, but when it moved to the United States and tried to be accepted on the same level as baseball, it failed.

Figurative Language4. Metaphor

Funnel clouds and elephants’ trunks are the same shape and the same color of gray. Both suck everything up before moving on.

5. MetaphorsThe man who doesn’t read is isolated by his inability to learn about anything outside his immediate world.

Figurative Language6. Simile

Marco’s alienation is causing him ever-present pain.MetaphorHaving skipped bail, Marco has compounded his problems, which are now impossible to surmount.

7. MetaphorBlacks and whites must work together for the common good.

Connotation and Our Perception of the Issues

In this portion of Ch. 6, you will read a discussion of how the media and politicians use connotative language to slant the truth and to shape our perceptions.

Government officials and politicians are especially guilty of providing us with the very best by putting the best spin on their proposals or on world events.


How?


We become immune to

linguistic abuse.


How Word Choice Influences Our Perceptions—the Media

Problems with connotation can cause even the most professional

and dedicated journalist to stumble.


Result?

Language misused and abused

Clichés Tired, overused expressions

Code words Secret words or phrases that mean something special to insiders but something different to outsiders

Jargon The specialized language used by a particular group

Euphemisms Inoffensive language used as a substitute for possibly offensive terms

Politically correct language

Language that attempts to avoid insensitivity related to diversity, historical injustices, racism, etc.

Sneer words Words with strong negative, derogatory connotations

Doublespeak Language used to twist, to deceive, or to misrepresent the truth

Obfuscating language

Language that is unnecessarily complicated, vague, or confusing, used to misrepresent the truth.

Clever language may consist of the following manipulative language:


Clichés (the lazy writer)

tired, overused expressions

Good writers avoid clichés because these fossilized expressions long ago lost their effectiveness; many no longer make sense.


Clichés – commonly used

As fresh as a daisy As rich as Croesus

To come to a grinding halt

To be up in arms

As smart as a whip As cool as a cucumber

A labor of love A chip off the old block

As clear as mud A peaches-and-cream complexion

To be slower than molasses in January

To leave no stone unturned


Clichés – contemporaryTo think outside of the box

Outpouring of support

At the end of the day It’s not rocket science

To be (or not to be) a happy camper

A level playing field

Wealth of experience To tweak

Bells and whistles Cut and run (used by those who support an end to US forces being deployed in Iraq and generally thought to mean cowardice)

Language misused and abusedCode Words

Secret words or phrases that mean one thing to those in the know—to insiders—and something different to those on the outside.

Language misused and abusedJargon

Specialized language members of a particular trade, group, or profession use. It is usually used to make the writer or speaker sound more intelligent or learnèd than if he or she used ordinary language.


Phishing Unlawful attempts to gain access to confidential information by sending fake emails asking for Social Security numbers, passwords, etc.

Script kiddies Hackers, who, in the past, engaged in online pranks, trying to hack into people’s computer systems, typically done for thrills and bragging rights

Malware Software developed by cyberthieves, used to infect PCs and websites

Bot herders Criminals who break into computers and turn them into zombies, using them to automate identity theft, all without the owner’s knowledge


Usually inoffensive and not meant to hookwink. Jargon may be useful which provides a shorthand between people who are fluent in the terminology and the subject.


Jargon may be pretentious, obscure, and impossible to read.And yes, jargon can be employed to mislead.


Euphemisms an inoffensive word or

phrase substituted for what might be a more offensive (or sometimes humdrum) one. used to soften our

perception of unpleasant events, to change our beliefs, or perhaps even to cover up wrongdoing.


Go to p. 215 and do Practice Exercise 10.Decide whether each of the following passages represents a cliché, code word or phrase, jargon, or euphemism. (Try to do it without simply looking at the answers. Test yourself, first.)


Answers to p. 215, Practice Exercise 10.Decide whether each of the following passages represents a cliché, code word or phrase, jargon, or euphemism. (Try to do it without simply looking at the answers. Test yourself, first.)

Language misused and abused1. Code phrase2. Euphemism3. Cliché4. Jargon5. Clichés6. Code word + euphemism for

“fat”7. Euphemisms8. Educational jargon

Language misused and abusedPolitically Correct Language

Political correctness grew out of the increased sensitivity to diversity in the country in the 1980s by liberals who wanted the language of words and phrases to no longer identify people’s differences.

semantic labels for dealing with race, gender, and people

considered “disadvantaged


Conventional Term

Preferred PC Term

Members of minority groups

People of color, emergent groups, traditionally underrepresented, or members of the world’s majorities

Mankind Humanity or humankind

Handicapped Physically challenged or differently abled

Prostitute Sex worker

Old person Mature person, senior, or chronologically gifted


Conventional Term

Preferred PC Term

Fat person Person of size, differently sized person

Fireman, policeman

Firefighter, police officer

Language misused and abusedSneer Words

A writer can shape our perception of events, making things seem less bad than they actually are, with euphemism.

On the other hand, a writer can intensify an already bad situation or cast doubt on an idea by using sneer words.

words with strong negative connotations suggesting derision and scorn


Political Correct Language

semantic labels for dealing with race, gender, and

people considered “disadvantaged”Sneer

Wordswords with strong negative connotations

suggesting derision and scorn

Language misused and abusedSneer Words

Agenda Term used to describe the thinking of a group one dislikes (i.e., the gay-rights agenda, the Christian agenda, the liberal agenda, etc.

Flyover states

The states located between the East and West coasts; the term implies that they don’t have much influence on American culture.

So-called A term used to disparage whatever noun it precedes. Creationists often call scientists who support evolution “so-called scientists” to cast doubt on their authority.

Language misused and abusedDoublespeak

Coined by George Orwell in his 1984 novel meaning to doublethink and newspeak.

Doublespeak may or may not involve euphemism and is usually meaningless.

A variation of doublespeak is waffling.


Doublespeak is language that pretends to communicate but really doesn’t. It is language that makes the bad seem good, the negative appear positive, the unpleasant appear attractive or at least tolerable. Doublespeak is language that avoids or shifts responsibility, language that is at variance with its real or purported meaning.

-William D. Lutz


Language that is “grossly deceptive, evasive, euphemistic, confusing or self-contradictory” with the potential for “pernicious social or political consequences.”

-William D. LutzA variation of doublespeak is waffling.

A political candidate’s views on current issues which undergo constant shifts which makes it difficult to see what he or she really stands for.


Doublespeak

Frame-supported tension structure

Defense Department term for a tent

Manually powered fastener-driving impact device

Defense Department term for a hammer

Airborne sanitation A bombing attack

Area denial weapons Cluster bombs (bombs that carry bomblets that result in civilian deaths

Collateral damage The killing of innocent civilians, used first in Kosovo and later in Iraq

Military Doublespeak “Pentagonese”


Retrievable storage site

A nuclear fuel dump

Uncontrolled contact with the ground

A safety expert’s term for an airplane crash

Runway incursion The FAA’s term for planes and airport vehicles that stray off course and cause a hazard or collision

Water landing The term airlines use to describe a crash in the ocean

Therapeutic misadventure

The medical profession’s term for a doctor’s incompetence that results in a patient’s death

Negative employee retention

Corporate doublespeak for employee layoffs

Miscellaneous Examples


Obfuscating Language

To make something difficult to understand.

It may be complicated, vague, or confusing.

It leads to uncertainty, misinterpretation, or both.

Go to p. 219, Practice Exercise 11

Decide whether each of the following passages represents politically correct language, sneer words, doublespeak, or obfuscating language. Don’t go to the answers until you’ve tested yourself and have made a guess for each answer.

Answers to p. 219, Practice Exercise 11

1. Obfuscating language; also doublespeak

2. Doublespeak/waffling

3. Doublespeak

4. Sneer words

5. Doublespeak

6. Doublespeak (also corporate jargon)

7. Politically correct language

8. Doublespeak

9. Doublespeak

10. Politically correct language

Now, go back and review.• This chapter is filled with much complex

information.

• Study it carefully.

• Test yourself on the chapter exercises. If you are having trouble, review.

• When you feel comfortable knowing the information contained in the chapter, go to the chapter assignment.

• Next, do the extra credit for further reinforcement.

chapter 6: language and its effects on the reader part 3 discovering meaning: the importance of...

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denotation of words

right word

dictionsome words

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different meaning

surface meaning

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importance of contextoften