chapter 6: groups and organizations

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

SociologyEleventh Edition

Richard T. Schaefer

Chapter 6:

Groups and Organizations

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.Slide 2

Groups and Organizations

Understanding Groups Understanding Organizations Case Study: Bureaucracy and the Space

Shuttle Columbia Voluntary Associations The Changing Workplace Social Policy and Organizations: The Sta

te of the Unions


Types of Groups

Group: any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact on a regular basis Primary group: small group with intimate,

face-to-face association and cooperation Secondary group: formal, impersonal

groups with little social intimacy or mutual understanding


Types of Groups

In-groups: any groups or categories to which people feel they belong

Out-groups: any groups or categories to which people feel they do not belong

Conflict between in-groups and out-groups can turn violent on a personal as well as political level


Types of Groups

Reference group: any group thatindividuals use as standard for evaluating their own behavior

Reference groups set and enforce standards of conduct and belief

Often two or more reference groups influence us at the same time

Coalitions: temporary or permanent alliances geared toward common goal


Table 6-1: Comparison of Primary and Secondary Groups


Studying Small Groups

Small group: group small enough for all members to interact simultaneously

Size of a Group Smaller groups have greater

interaction opportunities Dyad: a two-member group Triad: a three-member group


Studying Small Groups

Groupthink: collective pressure to conform to predominant line of thought High-level government leaders and advisers

particularly prone to groupthink Outside facilitators can help avoid groupthink


Research in Action

6-1: Decision Making in the Jury Room Have you ever served on a jury?

Were you aware of jurors who made up their minds early in the trial, despite the judge’s instructions?

Did you experience stress from being exposed to graphic images of violence and bloodshed?

Is a jury a typical small group? Would a large group be more effective than a

small group in determining a defendant’s guilt or innocence?


Formal Organizations and Bureaucracies

Formal organization: group designed for a special-purpose and structured for maximum efficiency In U.S., formal organizations fulfill enormous

variety of personal and societal needs Ascribed statuses can influence how we see

ourselves within formal organizations


Characteristics of a Bureaucracy

Bureaucracy: component of formal organization that uses rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency

Ideal type bureaucracy: (Weber) construct or model for evaluating specific cases Weber emphasized basic similarity of

structure and process found in dissimilar enterprises of religion, government, education, and business



Ideal type bureaucracy1. Division of labor

2. Hierarchy of authority

3. Written rules and regulations

4. Impersonality

5. Employment based on technical qualifications



Division of labor Specialized experts perform specific tasks

Fragmentation of work can remove connection workers have to overall objective of the bureaucracy

Alienation: condition of estrangement or dissociation from the surrounding society

Trained incapacity: workers become so specialized that they develop blind spots and fail to notice obvious problems



Hierarchy of Authority Each position is under the supervision of a

higher authority Written rules and regulations

Rules and regulations ensures uniform performance of every task

Provide sense of continuity Goal displacement: when rules and

regulations can overshadow larger goals of an organization and become dysfunctional



Impersonality Bureaucratic norms dictate that officials

perform duties without personal consideration to people as individuals

Employment based on technical qualifications Peter Principle: every employee within a

hierarchy tends to rise to his or her level of incompetence (Peter and Jull 1969)



Bureaucratization as Process Bureaucratization: process by which

group, organization, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic

Can take place within small group settings

Oligarchy: Rule by a Few Iron Law of Oligarchy: even a democratic

organization eventually develops into a bureaucracy ruled by a few


Table 6-2: Characteristics of a Bureaucracy


Sociology in the Global Community

6-2: McDonald’s and the Worldwide Bureaucratization of Society Do you patronize McDonald’s and other fast-

food establishments? What features of these restaurants do

you appreciate? Do you have any complaints about them?

Analyze life at your college using Weber’s model of bureaucracy.

What elements of McDonaldization do you see? Do you wish life were less McDonaldized?


Bureaucracy and Organizational Culture

Classical theory: (also known as Scientific Management Approach) workers are motivated almost entirely by economic rewards

Human relations approach: role of people, communication, and participation within a bureaucracy emphasized Difficult to research because of

Hawthorne effect


Case Study: Bureaucracy and the Space Shuttle Columbia

In February, 2003, space shuttle Columbia disintegrated as it reentered earth’s atmosphere Accident Investigation Board found causes

Foam struck spacecraft’s wing during liftoff Foam labeled as a maintenance problem and not a

safety issue NASA’s bureaucratic organizational culture

Condemned “acceptable risk” attitude


Voluntary Associations

Voluntary association: organization established based on common interests with members who volunteer or pay to participate More than 456,000 voluntary associations

in U.S. Largely segregated by gender Importance of associations increasingly

being recognized


Figure 6-1: Membership in Voluntary Associationsin the United States

Source: J. Davis and Smith 2001:347.


Research in Action

6-3: Hired Guns What do you think of the trend toward the

temporary employment of skilled workers? How might it affect the value you place on a

college education? Besides the growing dominance of service

industries and information systems, what other factors might be contributing to the trend toward temporary employment of skilled workers?


Organizational Restructuring

Formal organizations experimenting with new ways of getting the job done since late 20th century Collective decision making Minimal hierarchy Project teams and task forces Fostered growing number of independent

consultants and outside contractors who labor off site


Telecommuting

Telecommuters: employees who work full- or part-time at home rather than in an outside office

Number of telecommuters increased from 8.5 million in 1995 to 50 million in 2005 Telecommuting may move society further

along the continuum from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft

Could pull fathers and mothers back into the home


Electronic Communication

E-mail efficient, rapidly communicated, and democratic Does not convey body language, leaves a

permanent record, and can be monitored Electronic communication contributes

significantly to fragmentation of work


The State of the Unions

The Issue What diminished importance of organized

labor unions? Membership dropped from 39% of private sector

workers in 1954 to 12.5% in 2005 Have unions perhaps outlived their

usefulness in a rapidly changing global economy dominated by the service industry?



The Setting Labor unions: organized workers sharing

either the same skill or the same employer Reasons given for decline of labor unions

Changes in the type of industry Growth in part-time jobs Legal system Globalization Employer offensives Union rigidity and bureaucratization



Sociological Insights Marxists and functionalists view unions as

logical response to emergence of impersonal, large-scale, formal, and often alienating organizations

Conflict theorists note the longer union leaders are in office the less responsive they are to the needs and demands of the rank and file

Many union employees encounter role conflict



Policy Initiatives U.S. unique in allowing employers to actively

oppose employee’s right to organize Major barrier to union growth exists in 22 states

with right-to-work laws Union power waning on the national level In Europe, labor unions tend to play major role

in political elections Debate in Congress raised question whether

unions should use dues to support political candidate or position


Figure 6-2: Union Membership in the United States

Source: Hirsch and Macpherson 2006.


Figure 6-3: Union Membership in the United States

Note: “Right to work” means that legally, workers cannot be required to join a union or pay union dues.

Source: Developed by the author based on data from Bureau of Labor Statistics 2005; National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation 2007.

chapter 6: groups and organizations

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