chapter 6 a tour of the cell. overview: the importance of cells all organisms are made of cells the...
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Chapter 6
A Tour of the Cell
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Overview: The Importance of Cells• All organisms are made of cells• The cell is the simplest collection of matter
that can live• Cell structure is correlated to cellular function• All cells are related by their descent from earlier cells
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Microscopy• Scientists use microscopes to visualize cells too small to
see with the naked eye• In a light microscope (LM), visible light passes through
a specimen and then through glass lenses, which magnify the image
• The minimum resolution of an LM is about 200 nanometers (nm), the size of a small bacterium
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LE 6-2
Measurements1 centimeter (cm) = 10–2 meter (m) = 0.4 inch1 millimeter (mm) = 10–3 m1 micrometer (µm) = 10–3 mm = 10–6 m1 nanometer (nm) = 10–3 µm = 10–9 m
10 m
1 mHuman height
Length of somenerve andmuscle cells
Chicken egg
0.1 m
1 cm
Frog egg1 mm
100 µm
Most plant andanimal cells
10 µmNucleus
1 µm
Most bacteria
Mitochondrion
Smallest bacteria
Viruses100 nm
10 nmRibosomes
Proteins
Lipids1 nm
Small molecules
Atoms0.1 nmU
naid
ed e
ye
Ligh
t mic
rosc
ope
Elec
tron
mic
rosc
ope
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• LMs can magnify effectively to about 1,000 times the size of the actual specimen
• Various techniques enhance contrast and enable cell components to be stained or labeled
• Most subcellular structures, or organelles, are too small to be resolved by a LM
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LE 6-3a
Brightfield (unstained specimen)
50 µmBrightfield (stained specimen)
Phase-contrast
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• Two basic types of electron microscopes (EMs) are used to study subcellular structures
• Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) focus a beam of electrons onto the surface of a specimen, providing images that look 3D
• Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) focus a beam of electrons through a specimen
• TEMs are used mainly to study the internal ultrastructure of cells
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Isolating Organelles by Cell Fractionation• Cell fractionation takes cells apart and separates the
major organelles from one another• Ultracentrifuges fractionate cells into their component
parts• Cell fractionation enables scientists to determine the
functions of organelles
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LE 6-5a
Homogenization
HomogenateTissuecells
Differential centrifugation
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LE 6-5b
Pellet rich innuclei andcellular debris
Pellet rich inmitochondria (and chloro-plasts if cellsare from a plant)
Pellet rich in“microsomes”(pieces of plasmamembranes andcells’ internalmembranes) Pellet rich in
ribosomes
150,000 g3 hr
80,000 g60 min
20,000 g20 min
1000 g(1000 times theforce of gravity)
10 min
Supernatant pouredinto next tube
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Concept 6.2: Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions
• The basic structural and functional unit of every organism is one of two types of cells: prokaryotic or eukaryotic
• Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells
• Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of eukaryotic cells
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Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells• Basic features of all cells: – Plasma membrane– Semifluid substance called the cytosol– Chromosomes (carry genes)– Ribosomes (make proteins)
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• Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus• In a prokaryotic cell, DNA is in an unbound region
called the nucleoid• Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles
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LE 6-6
A typicalrod-shapedbacterium
A thin section through thebacterium Bacilluscoagulans (TEM)
0.5 µm
Pili
Nucleoid
Ribosomes
Plasmamembrane
Cell wall
Capsule
Flagella
Bacterialchromosome
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• Eukaryotic cells have DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous nuclear envelope
• Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles• Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than
prokaryotic cells• The logistics of carrying out cellular metabolism sets
limits on the size of cells
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LE 6-7
Total surface area(height x width xnumber of sides xnumber of boxes)
6
125 125
150 750
1
11
5
1.2 66
Total volume(height x width x lengthX number of boxes)
Surface-to-volumeratio(surface area volume)
Surface area increases whileTotal volume remains constant
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• The plasma membrane is a selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service the volume of the cell
• The general structure of a biological membrane is a double layer of phospholipids
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LE 6-8
Hydrophilicregion
Hydrophobicregion
Carbohydrate side chain
Structure of the plasma membrane
Hydrophilicregion
Phospholipid Proteins
Outside of cell
Inside of cell 0.1 µm
TEM of a plasma membrane
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A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell• A eukaryotic cell has internal membranes that
partition the cell into organelles• Plant and animal cells have most of the same
organelles
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LE 6-9a
Flagellum
Centrosome
CYTOSKELETON
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Peroxisome
Microvilli
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER
Rough ER Smooth ER
MitochondrionLysosome
Golgi apparatus
Ribosomes:
Plasma membrane
Nuclear envelope
NUCLEUS
In animal cells but not plant cells: LysosomesCentriolesFlagella (in some plant sperm)
Nucleolus
Chromatin
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LE 6-9b
Roughendoplasmicreticulum
In plant cells but not animal cells: ChloroplastsCentral vacuole and tonoplastCell wallPlasmodesmata
Smoothendoplasmicreticulum
Ribosomes(small brown dots)
Central vacuole
MicrofilamentsIntermediatefilamentsMicrotubules
CYTOSKELETON
Chloroplast
Plasmodesmata
Wall of adjacent cell
Cell wall
Nuclearenvelope
Nucleolus
Chromatin
NUCLEUS
Centrosome
Golgiapparatus
Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Plasmamembrane
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Concept 6.3: The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes
• The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a eukaryotic cell
• Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to make proteins
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The Nucleus: Genetic Library of the Cell• The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes and is
usually the most conspicuous organelle• The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus, separating
it from the cytoplasm
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LE 6-10
Close-up of nuclearenvelope
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear envelope:Inner membraneOuter membrane
Nuclear pore
Porecomplex
Ribosome
Pore complexes (TEM) Nuclear lamina (TEM)
1 µm
Rough ER
Nucleus1 µm
0.25 µm
Surface of nuclear envelope
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Ribosomes: Protein Factories in the Cell• Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA and
protein• Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two locations:– In the cytosol (free ribosomes)– On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or
the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)
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LE 6-11
Ribosomes
0.5 µm
ER Cytosol
Endoplasmicreticulum (ER)
Free ribosomes
Bound ribosomes
Largesubunit
Smallsubunit
Diagram ofa ribosome
TEM showing ERand ribosomes
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Concept 6.4: The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell
• Components of the endomembrane system:– Nuclear envelope– Endoplasmic reticulum– Golgi apparatus– Lysosomes– Vacuoles– Plasma membrane
• These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by vesicles
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The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more than half of the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells
• The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope
• There are two distinct regions of ER:– Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes– Rough ER, with ribosomes studding its surface
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LE 6-12
Ribosomes
Smooth ER
Rough ER
ER lumenCisternae
Transport vesicle
Smooth ER Rough ER
Transitional ER
200 nm
Nuclearenvelope
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Functions of Smooth ER• The smooth ER– Synthesizes lipids– Metabolizes carbohydrates– Stores calcium– Detoxifies poison
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Functions of Rough ER• The rough ER– Has bound ribosomes– Produces proteins and membranes, which are
distributed by transport vesicles– Is a membrane factory for the cell
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• The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae
• Functions of the Golgi apparatus:– Modifies products of the ER– Manufactures certain macromolecules– Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles
The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center
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LE 6-13
trans face(“shipping” side ofGolgi apparatus) TEM of Golgi apparatus
0.1 µm
Golgi apparatus
cis face(“receiving” side ofGolgi apparatus)
Vesicles coalesce toform new cis Golgi cisternae Vesicles also
transport certainproteins back to ER
Vesicles movefrom ER to Golgi
Vesicles transport specificproteins backward to newerGolgi cisternae
Cisternalmaturation:Golgi cisternaemove in a cis-to-transdirection
Vesicles form andleave Golgi, carryingspecific proteins toother locations or tothe plasma mem-brane for secretion
Cisternae
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Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments
• A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes• Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats,
polysaccharides, and nucleic acids• Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle organelles and
macromolecules, a process called autophagy
Animation: Lysosome Formation
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LE 6-14a
Phagocytosis: lysosome digesting food
1 µm
Plasmamembrane
Food vacuole
Lysosome
Nucleus
Digestiveenzymes
Digestion
Lysosome
Lysosome containsactive hydrolyticenzymes
Food vacuolefuses withlysosome
Hydrolyticenzymes digestfood particles
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LE 6-14b
Autophagy: lysosome breaking down damaged organelle
1 µm
Vesicle containingdamaged mitochondrion
Mitochondrionfragment
Lysosome containingtwo damaged organelles
Digestion
Lysosome
Lysosome fuses withvesicle containingdamaged organelle
Peroxisomefragment
Hydrolytic enzymesdigest organellecomponents
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Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments
• Vesicles and vacuoles (larger versions of vacuoles) are membrane-bound sacs with varied functions
• A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several vacuoles
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• Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis• Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater
protists, pump excess water out of cells• Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells,
hold organic compounds and water
Video: Paramecium Vacuole
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Concept 6.5: Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to another
• Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration• Chloroplasts, found only in plants and algae, are the
sites of photosynthesis• Mitochondria and chloroplasts are not part of the
endomembrane system• Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles
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Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion• Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells• They have a smooth outer membrane and an inner
membrane folded into cristae• The inner membrane creates two compartments:
intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix• Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are
catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix• Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that
synthesize ATP
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LE 6-17
Mitochondrion
Intermembrane space
Outer membrane
Inner membrane
Cristae
Matrix
100 nmMitochondrialDNA
Freeribosomes in themitochondrialmatrix
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Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy• The chloroplast is a member of a family of organelles
called plastids• Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, as
well as enzymes and other molecules that function in photosynthesis
• Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green organs of plants and in algae
• Chloroplast structure includes:– Thylakoids, membranous sacs– Stroma, the internal fluid
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LE 6-18
Chloroplast
ChloroplastDNA
RibosomesStroma
Inner and outermembranes
Granum
Thylakoid1 µm
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Peroxisomes: Oxidation• Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic compartments
bounded by a single membrane• Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it
to water
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LE 6-19
Chloroplast
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion
1 µm
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Concept 6.6: The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell
• The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm
• It organizes the cell’s structures and activities, anchoring many organelles
• It is composed of three types of molecular structures:– Microtubules– Microfilaments– Intermediate filaments
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Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support, Motility, and Regulation
• The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell and maintain its shape
• It interacts with motor proteins to produce motility• Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along “monorails”
provided by the cytoskeleton• Recent evidence suggests that the cytoskeleton may
help regulate biochemical activities
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LE 6-21a
Vesicle
Receptor formotor protein
Microtubuleof cytoskeleton
Motor protein(ATP powered)
ATP
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Microtubules• Microtubules are hollow rods about 25 nm in diameter
and about 200 nm to 25 microns long• Functions of microtubules:– Shaping the cell– Guiding movement of organelles– Separating chromosomes during cell division
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LE 6-22
0.25 µm
Microtubule
Centrosome
Centrioles
Longitudinal sectionof one centriole
Microtubules Cross sectionof the other centriole
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• Cilia and flagella share a common ultrastructure:– A core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma
membrane– A basal body that anchors the cilium or flagellum– A motor protein called dynein, which drives the
bending movements of a cilium or flagellum
Animation: Cilia and Flagella
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• How dynein “walking” moves flagella and cilia:– Dynein arms alternately grab, move, and release the
outer microtubules– Protein cross-links limit sliding– Forces exerted by dynein arms cause doublets to
curve, bending the cilium or flagellum
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LE 6-25a
Dynein “walking”
Microtubuledoublets ATP
Dynein arm
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• Microfilaments that function in cellular motility contain the protein myosin in addition to actin
• In muscle cells, thousands of actin filaments are arranged parallel to one another
• Thicker filaments composed of myosin interdigitate with the thinner actin fibers
Video: Cytoplasmic Streaming
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LE 6-27a
Muscle cellActin filament
Myosin filament
Myosin arm
Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction
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• Localized contraction brought about by actin and myosin also drives amoeboid movement
• Pseudopodia (cellular extensions) extend and contract through the reversible assembly and contraction of actin subunits into microfilaments
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LE 6-27b
Cortex (outer cytoplasm):gel with actin network
Amoeboid movement
Inner cytoplasm: solwith actin subunits
Extendingpseudopodium
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Concept 6.7: Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities
• Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are external to the plasma membrane
• These extracellular structures include:– Cell walls of plants– The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells– Intercellular junctions
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Cell Walls of Plants• Plant cell walls may have multiple layers:– Primary cell wall: relatively thin and flexible– Middle lamella: thin layer between primary walls of
adjacent cells– Secondary cell wall (in some cells): added between
the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall• Plasmodesmata are channels between adjacent plant
cells
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LE 6-28Centralvacuole of cell
PlasmamembraneSecondarycell wall
Primarycell wall
Middlelamella
1 µm
Centralvacuole of cell
Central vacuoleCytosol
Plasma membrane
Plant cell walls
Plasmodesmata
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Plants: Plasmodesmata• Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate plant cell
walls• Through plasmodesmata, water and small solutes (and
sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from cell to cell
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The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells
• Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM)
• The ECM is made up of glycoproteins and other macromolecules
• Functions of the ECM:– Support– Adhesion– Movement– Regulation
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LE 6-29a
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID ProteoglycancomplexCollagen
fiber
Fibronectin
Integrin Micro-filaments
CYTOPLASM
Plasmamembrane
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Intercellular Junctions• Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems
often adhere, interact, and communicate through direct physical contact
• Intercellular junctions facilitate this contact
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Animals: Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and Gap Junctions
• At tight junctions, membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid
• Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells together into strong sheets
• Gap junctions (communicating junctions) provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells
Animation: Tight Junctions
Animation: Desmosomes
Animation: Gap Junctions
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LE 6-31
Tight junctions preventfluid from moving across a layer of cells
Tight junction
0.5 µm
1 µm
0.1 µm
Gap junctionExtracellularmatrix
Spacebetweencells
Plasma membranesof adjacent cells
Intermediatefilaments
Tight junction
Desmosome
Gapjunctions