Chapter 6 1965 - 1975

The Chip & Its Impact

First Microprocessor Chip

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Grosch’s LawA big system that costs twice as much as a small system actually gets you 4 times computing power

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Why Grosch’s Law?

Memory & Circuitry costs cost / bit higher for small computers

Connecting of small computers not efficient

Held thru 1960’s

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The Chip- 1959 Drove minicomputer IC replaced discrete

transistors, resistors, core memory

Next step in “modules” Printed Circuits Cheap materials & Mass

Produced4

Integrated Circuit - 1959 Jack Kilby, Texas Instruments

Nobel Prize, Physics, 2000

Robert Noyce, Fairchild Electronics, CA Solved “Tyranny of Numbers” problem Driving forces

Military - smaller, reliable missiles & rockets (many failures)

Civilian - cheaper, less errors, hand work

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Molecular Electronics - USAF Goal: New device of substances whose

individual molecules did the switching 1959 – Westinghouse – grants of $2 mil &

$2.6 mil For rockets, ballistic missiles 2 years later, quietly dropped USAF - “clean” rooms, early 1960’s, for

minuteman missiles, detailed records Demanded high reliability (Hi-Rel) from all

suppliers

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Jack Kilby

1957- Centrallab Printed circuit boards Germanium to silicon Did not have resources for development

1958 – TX Instruments, Dallas Microminiaturization Make all components of silicon or germanium More expensive than carbon, ceramics All components same material as transistor - silicon

Would allow one set-up not many

Nobel Prize 2000

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Jack Kilby

Built circuit of silicon, then germanium Work as oscillator Built by hand Resistors, capacitor

Applied for patents - 1959 Awarded 1964 Drawings Pg. 184 -185 “Solid Circuit”

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First IC

Robert Noyce Fairchild Semiconductor, CA Heard of Kilby’s design Designed same idea on silicon Photo-etching process (Jean Hoerni)

Flat transistor, “planar process” Silicon best insulator

Layers isolate devices Applied patent - 1959

Shared credit, Noyce’s process most significant

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I.C. Progress Neither “inventor” had connection to USAF Military & Aerospace industry provided market

“advanced” Minuteman II missile 2K IC’s + 4K DC’s vs. 15K discrete circuits Flew 1964 Established acceptability of IC & volume

production lines TI, Westinghouse, RCA - 4,000 / week Noyce “military stifles research”

Military use: 1963 – 100% IC, 1964 – 95% IC

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Apollo (NASA)

Fairchild provided IC’s Apollo computer

5,000 simple chips Single-type 75 guidance computers built

During project: chip price dropped from $1,000 to $20 - $30

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Chip into Commercial Computers IBM 360 – solid state ceramic

circuitry SDS and RCA announced silicon

IC computers IBM 370 – silicon IC’s Quickly used in Minicomputers

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2nd Generation Mini’s DEC dominant, not like IBM 1968-1972 - 100 companies offered minis

Did not need excessive capitol - see Pg. 192 Increase in performance; decrease in cost Driving forces

Standardized, Inexpensive chips TTL- transistor- transistor logic

Today’s “caterpillar” packaging Printed Circuit Board (standardized)

Pioneered by Globe-Union “stuff” chips in board; molten solder on back

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Minicomputer Developments DMA (early) - DEC 16 bit word length; 8- bit byte ASCII (not IBM’s EBCDIC)

CCC-DDP116 - 1st 16- bit mini Redesigned after IBM 360 announced 1966- Honeywell bought; withered

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ARPA

Defense Dept. – Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)

Funded projects 1967 - meeting on how to link computers

in a network across the U.S. To share resources among funded

agencies

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ARPANET Problem! All different computers Honeywell DPD- 516 @ each node as the

interface between mainframe and N.W. IMP- Interface message processor

Dec. 1969 - 4 nodes West of Rockies 1970 - 10 nodes, spanned the U.S. 1971 - 15 nodes with 23 host computers Oct. 1972 - Demo’d in D.C.

30 nodes Dismantled in 1988 No longer need IMP

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Data General Edson DeCastro @ DEC

Design for 16 bit mini, rejected by DEC Formed D.G. – to build 16-bit mini

1968 – DG Nova Ken Olsen - DEC- claimed Nova was “copied”

PDP-X designed at DEC Used all newer innovations MSI - Medium Scale Integration 1971- Super Nova

IC for memory (RAM) - no core 1970 - in Illiac-IV, U of Ill., non-von Neumann (computer was failure)

Established viability of semiconductor memory (RAM)

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In the Meantime…

1968 - Robert Noyce & Gordon Moore left Fairchild; also Andrew Grove

Company to focus on memory Intel => “integrated electronics” 1970 - announced the 1103 chip

1024- bit dynamic RAM This + Nova end of magnetic core

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PDP-11

1969 - DEC not maintaining market (12-bit word, limited instructions)

PDP-8 was likely being

replaced by competitors DEC decided to try 16 bit, again

Engineers and Carnegie - Mellon Abandoned a years worth of work Adopted an alternate design - McFarland

Deliveries began early 1970

PDP-11 44

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PDP 11 (cont.) New Innovation - BUS

“set of wires to serve all major sections of computers in common and standard way”

UNIBUS - 56 lines Earlier BUS (BUSS)

Whirlwind, Mark I, NOVA, PDP-8

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PDP 11- Success

From 5,800 employees in 1970 to 36,000 in 1977

Sold 170,000 in 1970’s 1970’s Recession in computing

DEC & Data General survived

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Direct Access Computing 1950’s- IBM RAMAC

But still used tape for 10 years Time sharing was developing

370; GE/ Honeywell; Dartmouth 1960’s - 70’s

Cost dropped twenty fold Capacity increased 40X

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Magnetic Disks

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Direct Access Computing (cont.) 1980 - fixed disk packs

IBM - Winchester- 2 x 30 mbytes DASD

CICS - IBM (Generic) Allowed direct query from database

Transformed retail sales by phone Customers wrote own applications

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Computer Science Education Batch prevailed for many years “load-and-go” compilers; MAD @ Michigan Waterloo U., Canada - Dept.-1962

WATFOR (version of FORTRAN for 360) 6,000 student jobs per hour Reduced cost- $10 to 10 cents per job For IBM 360/75

WATBOL

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Dartmouth University

John Kemeney - Math professor - 1963 Wanted system to teach interactive

programming to all students With Thomas Kurtz - developed BASIC &

system to use it on GE 235 Slowly went to some other Universities

Schools began charging fees for time Still used punch cards into 1980’s

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RSTS-II on PDP-11(Resource Sharing

Time Sharing) Time sharing; no memory protection RSTS implemented in BASIC Modified BASIC

PEEK & POKE (Individual Bits) Took less memory Ready for PC’s

“The mini generated the seeds of its own destruction by preparing the way for personal computers” (Ceruzzi)

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Chapter 6 1965 - 1975

The Chip & Its Impact

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