chapter 5: the renaissance the history of the church

Chapter 5: The RenaissanceTHE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH

ANTICIPATORY SET Complete a Think/Pair/Share using the following

question:

Do you think a college should train its students for a specific profession or give them a general education for life?

1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)

BASIC QUESTIONS What was the origin, organization, curriculum, and influence of the

university on Medieval European society? What was the methodology of Scholasticism? KEY IDEAS As the demand for education grew, teachers in the north of Europe

formed guilds to protect their interests; in the south of Europe, students from different regions formed nations to protect their interests and administer the university. Students heard books, and more advanced students debated their professors. Studium generale included philosophy, theology, law, medicine, and the liberal arts; the liberal arts consisted of the trivium (grammar, logic, and rhetoric) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music). Students could then go on to receive a doctorate in law, medicine, or theology. The universities educated tens of thousands.

Scholasticism (science of the schools) collected statements about a subject, including contradictory ones, and tried to harmonize them using reason. St. Thomas Aquinas reconciled Aristotelian thought with Divine Revelation, creating a synthesis of faith and reason that became standard for Catholic thinking.


GUIDED EXERCISE Mini-lecture on the seeming contradiction between

faith and philosophy.


FOCUS QUESTIONS How were schools reorganized, and what was the

difference between schools in the north and the south of Europe?

Students apprenticed to expert teachers and were awarded degrees when they had mastered their disciplines, just as in other trade guilds. In the north, teachers ran the schools; in the south, students did.

What was a universitas? It was a corporation that protected the educational and

administrative interests of its members, namely, the faculty.


FOCUS QUESTIONS How was the University of Bologna organized? Students from various regions organized into nations, and each elected a rector.

The rector led the nation and helped administer the university in conjunction with rectors from other nations.

How was the University of Paris organized? Originally, the chancellor awarded licenses to faculty and academic degrees to

graduates. To protect their interests the teachers banded together to form the universitas. As studies became more specialized, the universitas separated into faculties with a dean leading each. The deans elected a rector who was the head of all faculties and the university.

How were the liberal arts divided? There were seven liberal arts divided into two categories. The trivium was made

up of grammar, logic, and rhetoric. The more advanced quadrivium included the mathematical disciplines: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music.


GRAPHIC ORGANIZER Complete the following table about the seven liberal arts (cf. p.

188).


GUIDED EXERCISE Work with a partner to perform a paragraph shrink on

the Catechism, no. 159 (p. 236).


FOCUS QUESTIONS What degrees were offered? Those who mastered the trivium received a Bachelor of

Arts degree. Mastering the quadrivium earned a Master of Arts. A student could also continue to study to earn a doctorate in law, medicine, or theology.

What was the role of debate? Masters and doctoral students learned by debating their

professors about the subjects they were studying.


FOCUS QUESTIONS What are the four Books of Sentences? These works of Peter Lombard are comprehensive

collections and discussions of the Church Fathers whose aim is to achieve a rational understanding of all questions relating to Revelation.

How were Aristotle’s works introduced into the

West? They were known through the Arab scholars Averroes

and Avicenna.


FOCUS QUESTIONS With what university is St. Thomas Aquinas

associated? He studied and taught at the University of Paris. What is the Summa Theologiæ? This greatest work of St. Thomas Aquinas is a systematic

examination of the fundamental beliefs of Christianity. What position of Averroes was most problematic? He held the double truth theory.


FOCUS QUESTIONS

What is the double truth theory? Philosophical truth, which is based on logical demonstration, is

superior to theological truth, which is based on opinion. A person can accept contradictory truths, philosophy being superior.

What was St. Thomas’s answer to the double truth theory? He rejected it. St. Thomas held that theology, based on Divine

Revelation, was superior to philosophy (philosophy is the handmaiden of theology) because of the absolute veracity of Revelation. Theology can guide, correct, and modify philosophical principles. There can never be a real division between philosophical and theological truths because there is one truth. If there appears to be a contradiction, philosophy must submit to the guidance of theology.


FOCUS QUESTIONS What effect did the Crusades have on the universities? Because of the Crusades, many books and ideas previously

unknown in the West were discovered. These were incorporated into university studies.

What was the impact of the University of Paris? Distinguished youth and future churchmen from every part

of Europe studied there. How many students were enrolled in universities? There were as many students as townspeople in Paris. In

Bologna, there were some 10,000 students. Even more were estimated at Oxford.


FOCUS QUESTIONS For what purpose did St. Thomas use Aristotelian

philosophy? St. Thomas used Aristotelian philosophy to explain theology. Was St. Thomas’s thought immediately accepted? No; most thinkers were apprehensive about Aristotle. What did Bl. John Duns Scotus try to do? He tried to compromise between St. Thomas and St.

Augustine.


GUIDED EXERCISE Some people claim that God cannot exist because there

is evil in the world. Read aloud Objection 1 and St. Thomas’s Reply to Objection 1, and then discuss the following questions:

What is the core argument in the objection and the reply?

Do you think St. Thomas demonstrates that the existence of evil is compatible with an infinitely good God?


FOCUS QUESTIONS How was St. Thomas as a young student? He could listen to a lesson and repeat it with more depth and

clarity than the teacher. How did St. Thomas’s family react to his desire to be a

Dominican? His brothers locked him in the family castle and hired a woman to

seduce him. Why did St. Thomas’s fellow students at Cologne call him a

dumb ox? He was large and quiet, which they mistook for a lack of

intelligence.


HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT Study Questions 1–13 (p. 234) Practical Exercise 1 (p. 236) Workbook Questions 1–31 Read “The Mendicant Orders” through “Medieval

Architecture” (pp. 192–201)


CLOSURE Free write for five minutes about St. Thomas Aquinas’s

contribution to Catholic theology.


ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT Discuss the following question:

Should colleges today return to providing a single curriculum that all students should master, or should they continue to specialize?


ANTICIPATORY SET Spend a few minutes analyzing the photographs of

Gothic cathedrals (pp. 199–201).

2. Mendicants and the Flowering of Culture (pp.

192–201)

BASIC QUESTIONS What is the story of St. Francis of Assisi, and what were his

contributions? What is the story of St. Dominic, and what were his contributions? How did architecture, literature, and the fine arts develop in the Middle

Ages? KEY IDEAS St. Francis embraced a radical poverty in imitation of Christ and

attracted thousands of followers, who preached the Gospel to the poor and helped renew the Faith.

St. Dominic founded a mendicant order dedicated to preaching and education; it was enormously influential in the renewal of Medieval society.

Catholics of the Middle Ages created soaring cathedrals that are magnificent religious works of art; vernacular literature, which reflected both everyday life and eternal truths; and religious paintings that set the stage for Renaissance art.


192–201)

FOCUS QUESTIONS What does “mendicant” mean? From the Latin mendicare (to beg), mendicants

practiced poverty and survived by begging. What was the focus of the Franciscans, and what

was the focus of the Dominicans? Franciscans preached the Gospel to the poor and lived a

radical poverty to reflect the love of Christ. Dominicans were dedicated to teaching and learning and produced great intellectuals.


192–201)

GUIDED EXERCISE Work with a partner to discuss problems likely to arise

with a religious order in which thousands of friars living in cities were forbidden to own any property or accumulate any wealth. Keep in mind the friars needed to live, carry out their work, and receive an education.


192–201)

FOCUS QUESTIONS

How did St. Francis receive his vocation? He was praying and doing penance when he heard God’s voice

telling him, “Rebuild my Church.”

How did St. Francis’s father and the townspeople of Assisi treat him?

His father beat him for wasting his money, disinherited him, and wanted the law to punish him. The townspeople threw rocks at him and mocked him as a madman.

What happened when St. Francis’s father dragged him before the local bishop?

St. Francis stripped almost naked and said, from now on, his only father would be God the Father.


192–201)

FOCUS QUESTIONS How was St. Francis as a young man, and what

happened when he realized his dream of becoming a soldier?

He loved to have a good time with his friends and dreamed of being a crusader. During his first battle, he was wounded and spent many months ill in captivity.

How did imprisonment change St. Francis? He began to pray and meditate on the life of Christ,

which led him to turn away from his worldly life.


192–201)

FOCUS QUESTIONS How did St. Francis live after he had disowned his father? He lived alone in the hills, fasting and praying. Who is Lady Poverty? St. Francis said he was married to Lady Poverty. It expressed his

romantic love for living poverty. What did St. Francis do when he heard the Gospel passage in

which Christ gave his Apostles instructions on how to preach?

He took the instructions literally. He preached without shoes, cloak, staff, and money. He wore a brown peasant’s tunic and preached to and begged with the poor.


192–201)

FOCUS QUESTIONS How was the Franciscan Order founded, and what was

its first Rule? The order began when two men joined St. Francis in his

travels and way of life. For their Rule, St. Francis listed the passages in the Gospels in which Christ asked his followers to give away their property and live a life of poverty.

Why did Pope Innocent III accept St. Francis? Pope Innocent III had a dream in which a poor man was

holding up the Basilica of St. John Lateran, the cathedral of the Diocese of Rome. Innocent took him to be St. Francis.


192–201)

FOCUS QUESTIONS To what Sacrament was St. Francis devoted especially? St. Francis was devoted especially to the Eucharist. He asked

everyone to be more devoted to the Eucharist and everything associated with it, including celebrating Mass reverently, keeping churches clean, and having beautiful vessels.

How many Franciscans existed at the end of St. Francis’

life? There were nearly 5000. What special grace did St. Francis receive? He received the stigmata, the wounds of Christ’s Passion.


192–201)

FOCUS QUESTIONS What problem did the Franciscans face after St. Francis’s

death? Thousands of Franciscans needed a practical way to survive in the

cities while living the spirit of poverty. Why is St. Bonaventure called the “second founder” of the

Franciscans? St. Bonaventure solved the Franciscans’ problem of how to survive

without property. Might the Franciscans have survived without St. Bonaventure’s

arrangement? They likely would have encountered difficulties to survive as an order.


192–201)

FOCUS QUESTIONS In what way did the Albigensian heretics seem more Christlike

than Catholics? The Albigensians preached extreme poverty. This seemed to honor the

example of Christ more than the lax morals exhibited by many clerics of the day.

How was the Albigensian heresy harmful to the human person? Its adherents taught that marriage and conception—even life itself—

were evils, whereas suicide, abortion, and homosexual acts were acceptable.

How was the Albigensian heresy harmful to the Catholic Faith? This heresy rejected the priesthood and the Sacraments. Therefore, its

adherents denied themselves the benefits of the Sacraments during their time on earth.


192–201)

FOCUS QUESTIONS Why were St. Dominic and his followers called the

Order of Preachers? St. Dominic sent them out in pairs into cities to live and

preach to the people. What was St. Dominic’s secret weapon? The Rosary was his weapon. How popular was the Order of Preachers compared to

the Franciscans? Their numbers were small, but their preaching and

scholarship had a profound influence in time.


192–201)

FOCUS QUESTIONS How did St. Dominic become a preacher to the

Albigensians? The Abbot of Citeaux in Southern France complained to a

Spanish bishop and his canon (St. Dominic) about how hard it was to convert people back to the Catholic Faith from Albigensianism. The two said that the example of the preacher was just as important as his words. Because Christ’s disciples preached barefoot without a staff or money, the two Spanish travelers decided to do the same.

Why was St. Dominic interested in education? He believed that a preacher needed a solid intellectual basis to

convert the Albigensians.


192–201)

FOCUS QUESTIONS What is the Romanesque style of architecture? Based on the form of a Roman basilica, a Romanesque building is

built in the shape of a cross with round, stone vaults. It is a heavy, long-lasting structure.

What idea gave rise to Gothic architecture? Gothic architecture is based on Christ as the Light of the World. What is the Gothic style of architecture? Architects developed ways to raise roofs higher and support their

weight without using thicker walls. The walls, then, could be opened with huge banks of windows. These windows were filled with stained glass, which both illustrated stories from the Bible and filled the halls with colored light.


192–201)

GUIDED EXERCISE Search the Internet for photographs and descriptions of

other Gothic churches.


192–201)

GUIDED EXERCISE Search the Internet for a gallery of the works of Giotto.


192–201)

HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT Study Questions 14–26 (p. 235) Workbook Questions 32–54 Read “Pope St. Celestine V” through “St. Joan of Arc”

(pp. 202–210)


192–201)

CLOSURE Free write for five minutes using the following question:

If you had to choose between joining the Franciscans and the Dominicans, which would you choose, and why?


192–201)

ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT Write a paragraph about the Franciscan ideal of poverty

and how it was lived in the early days.


192–201)

ANTICIPATORY SET Work with a partner to read “St. Joan of Arc’s

Impossible Mission” (p. 209), and then write an answer to the following question:

How was St. Joan of Arc able to convince the King of France to let her lead a French army?

3. Avignon and the Hundred Years War (pp. 202–210)

BASIC QUESTIONS Why did the influence of the papacy diminish and the move toward state

churches increase during the fourteenth century? What was the Hundred Years War, and what was St. Joan of Arc’s role

therein?

KEY IDEAS Beginning at the end of the thirteenth century, a succession of weak Popes

and political instability in Italy resulted in the papacy becoming “captive” to the king of France. Popes resided in Avignon for seventy years. The domination of the papacy by French Popes—residing in France, elected by French cardinals, and under the thumb of a French king—caused the English kings and German emperors to see the papacy as a French rather than an international religious office. The ever-appealing idea that the secular ruler should control the Church and her wealth led to a resurgence of the doctrine of Gallicanism in France; English laws set the foundation for a state-controlled Church, and the German emperor harbored antipapal agitators.

Hostilities between France and England broke the Truce of God, resulting in the Hundred Years War in which Christian slaughtered Christian; the French finally prevailed thanks to the aid of St. Joan of Arc.


FOCUS QUESTIONS

What kind of Pope was St. Celestine V? This 80-year-old man was beloved by the people for his simple, holy

life, but he was not competent to run the Church. He resigned within five months.

Why did Pope Boniface VIII arrest St. Celestine? Pope Boniface was afraid this abdicated Pope would be used by

schismatic groups to oppose him.

Was Pope Boniface VIII a successful diplomat? No; he tried unsuccessfully to force the lords and princes of the

Christian kingdoms to accept his temporal authority.

Why did Pope Boniface VIII carry two swords in procession? He claimed to wield both the spiritual and temporal powers; that is,

he was had authority over the Church and over kings.


FOCUS QUESTIONS Where is Avignon? It is a city in southern France on the Rhone River near the

Mediterranean Sea. Who was Peter Murrone? He was an 80-year-old hermit who was elected Pope St.

Celestine V. Why was St. Celestine V offered the papacy? He was a saintly and beloved hermit, and the papal see had

been vacant for two years due to political infighting.


FOCUS QUESTIONS How did the papacy lose its international prestige during the time in

Avignon? The kings of other Christian nations saw the Pope as a pawn of the French

king. How did the idea develop that individual nations should control the

Church? In England laws to this effect were enacted. In Germany the emperor

harbored anti-papal agitators to protect himself from French influence over the universal Church; this resurfaced during the Protestant Reformation.

How did St. Clement V further weaken the papacy’s authority? He retracted Pope Boniface VIII’s Clericis Laicos, which claimed that kings

could not tax the Church without the Pope’s permission, and reinterpreted Unam Sanctam, stripping the document of any claims to temporal authority.


FOCUS QUESTIONS What is Gallicanism? Gallicanism is a movement that arose under King Philip the Fair; it claimed

that a king’s authority extends to all ecclesiastical affairs in his realm. What did Pope Boniface VIII hope to accomplish by having written

Unam Sanctam? He hoped it would prompt King Philip the Fair to submit to him. Was Pope Boniface VIII successful in controlling King Philip? No; King Philip convened the Estates General, which charged Boniface

with crimes and deposed him; he was arrested and died. What was the aftermath of the death of Pope Boniface VIII? Italy fell into near anarchy.


GRAPHIC ORGANIZER Complete the following table according to Unam Sanctam (pp. 204–

205).


FOCUS QUESTIONS How did the Popes come to reside in Avignon? Pope St. Clement V, who had been a French archbishop, settled in

Avignon because of the chaos in Rome. How long was the Avignon papacy? It lasted seventy years. How were the Knights Templar suppressed? Pope St. Clement V permitted an Inquisition of the Knights

Templar, and the king had them tortured to obtain false confessions. Many of the Templars were put to death; King Philip seized half their property; and the Pope suppressed the order.


FOCUS QUESTIONS Did the Hundred Years War consist of a century of

continuous warfare? No; it was a series of short battles with long periods of peace. What was the Battle of Crecy? In 1346 an outnumbered English army defeated the French

knights. What superior weapon was employed by the English at

Crecy? The English used the longbow, a new, armor-piercing weapon

that could shoot an arrow 400 yards.


FOCUS QUESTIONS Why did many peasants move to cities after the Battle of Crecy, and

what was the result? They moved into walled cities for protection. When the plague broke out,

they died in great numbers. What kept France from gaining a decisive victory in 1380? A civil war erupted in France and the insane, twelve-year-old Charles VI

took the throne. What was the result of the Battle of Agincourt? In 1415 King Henry V of England defeated the French. He declared himself

King of France and married the French princess Catherine. He died after only two years, leaving the realm to his infant son. After this, young, incompetent, and partially mad kings ruled France under England’s thumb.


GUIDED EXERCISE Search the Internet for descriptions of the Battle of

Crecy and perhaps a simulation of the lines of battle.


FOCUS QUESTIONS Why did both France and England desire to control Flanders? Flanders was a wealthy trading area. Extension: It was a vassal of

France, but England declared it under her own protection. What was the immediate cause of the Hundred Years War? The French king Charles IV died without a clear heir in 1328. A

French nobleman and an English king each claimed the crown for himself.

What was the military distinction of the Battle of Castillon

(1453)?The first effective use of gunpowder, employed in muskets and

canons, was realized when French gunners defeated the English army.


FOCUS QUESTIONS Would it be true to say that France and England

were ruled separately during the Middle Ages? No; William the Conqueror, a Norman, conquered

England in 1066. Through matrimonial alliances, English kings inherited large tracts of French land.

How did the French kings irritate England? They supported Scottish nobles rebelling against the

English kings and encouraged piracy in the English Channel.


FOCUS QUESTIONS How was St. Joan betrayed by King Charles? He did not attempt to ransom her. How was St. Joan vindicated? Twenty-five years after her execution, the Pope lifted

her sentence. She became a national hero for the French, who soon thereafter retook almost all French territory. She was beatified in 1909 and canonized in 1920.


FOCUS QUESTIONS Describe the mystical experiences of St. Joan of Arc. She heard voices and saw visions of angels and saints. What evidence exists that these experiences came

from God? St. Joan was examined by doctors and bishops for insanity

and heresy. Her visions came true, e.g., the French were defeated at Herrings, she liberated Orleans, and Charles VII was crowned. She was able to discern the identity of the true king despite his disguise.


HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT Study Questions 27–35 (p. 235) Workbook Questions 55–77 Read “Return to Rome and Schism” through “Jan Hus”

(pp. 210–215)


CLOSURE Complete a Think/Pair/Share using the following

question:

Is there any precedent from the first 1300 years of Christianity to defend Defensor Pacis?


ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT Write a paragraph summarizing the Hundred Years

War.


ANTICIPATORY SET Mini-lecture: Mysticism.

4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy (pp. 210–215)

BASIC QUESTIONS How did the Western Schism occur, and how was it resolved? What proto-Protestant heresies arose in the fourteenth century, and

where did they find support? KEY IDEAS The French-dominated College of Cardinals, having elected an Italian

Pope under pressure, declared the election invalid and elected a Frenchman, resulting in the Western Schism. The schism lasted forty years and was resolved by a council.

In conjunction with heretical doctrines such as Gallicanism, Defensor Pacis, and Conciliarism, three proto-Protestant advocates arose. William of Ockham, John Wycliffe, and Jan Hus not only criticized clergy abuses but also assailed the hierarchical, doctrinal, and sacramental nature of the Church. Because they favored the dominance of the temporal ruler over the Church and her ecclesiastical property, they received support from kings and emperors.


FOCUS QUESTIONS What was remarkable about St. Catherine as a girl? St. Catherine consecrated her virginity to Christ when she

was seven and enjoyed mystical experiences throughout childhood. She joined the Dominicans at age sixteen.

What is the spiritual espousal of St. Catherine? She had a vision in which Christ, the Blessed Virgin Mary,

and saints and angels appeared to her. Christ took her soul to be his bride.


GUIDED EXERCISE Search the Internet for St. Catherine of Siena’s

Dialogue of Divine Providence and read an excerpt from it.


FOCUS QUESTIONS Why did St. Catherine enter public life? She had a vision in which God asked her to help “heal the wounds of the

Church.” How did St. Catherine carry out her public life? She wrote letters to public figures and helped convince Pope Gregory XI

to return to Rome. She attempted unsuccessfully to negotiate peace between Florence and other Italian city-states, even at the risk of assassination.

How did St. Catherine unite herself to the sufferings of Christ,

and what is remarkable about her corpse? She asked Christ to allow her to suffer for the sins of the world and to

bring unity to the Church. After her death, the stigmata appeared, and her body is incorrupt.


GUIDED EXERCISE Mini-lecture: William of Ockham


GUIDED EXERCISE Complete the following table about some Protestant heresies.


FOCUS QUESTIONS How long was the Avignon papacy? The Popes lived in Avignon for seventy years. What nationality were the cardinals who elected

the successor of Pope Gregory XI? They were all French. What did the mob of Romans demand of the

conclave? They demanded an Italian Pope.


FOCUS QUESTIONS What is Conciliarism? This heresy claims that the authority of an Ecumenical Council is

superior to that of the Pope and that an Ecumenical Council can depose and elect Popes.

What was the result of the Pisan Council? This elected a second Antipope; there were then three claimants to

the papacy. How did the Western Schism end? Emperor Sigismund forced Antipope John XXIII to call the Council of

Constance and resign. Pope Gregory XII agreed to resign if the Council of Constance recognized that he had been the legitimate Pope. The Antipope in France refused to participate and lost support. Pope Gregory’s abdication made possible the election of Pope Martin V.


GUIDED EXERCISE Work with a partner to list the three requirements for

the validity of an Ecumenical Council according to the Council of Ferrara-Florence.


FOCUS QUESTIONS According to the electors, was the election free and fair? Yes; they reported that Urban VI was elected “freely and

unanimously.” Why did the French cardinals dislike Urban VI? He was not docile to their wishes. He was harsh and critical

toward moral abuses, criticizing the cardinals for being materialistic and worldly.

How did the schism begin? The French cardinals claimed that they had elected Urban VI out

of fear and thus the election was invalid. They then elected Antipope Clement VII in his stead.


GRAPHIC ORGANIZER Work with a partner to complete the following table on

perennial philosophy and nominalism.


FOCUS QUESTIONS How did the Avignon Popes weaken the authority of the Catholic Church

in England? The identification of the Popes with France made them seem to be the enemies

of England. The need for funds to fight the French made seizing Church lands in England attractive.

What was John Wycliffe’s position on the Church having wealth? He advocated that the Church rid herself of all political power and practice

strict poverty. He said it was a sin for any sacred person (clergy or monk) to hold temporal possessions. For this reason, the king could seize Church lands.

What were Wycliffe’s proto-Protestant views? He attacked the authority of the Pope, rejected Scholasticism in favor of the

doctrine of sola Scriptura, believed in double predestination, denied man’s free will, and rejected the clergy and the Sacraments.


FOCUS QUESTIONS Why did state support for Wycliffe wane? Peasants in England attacked both the Church and the

state in the Peasant Revolt of 1381, basically demanding freedom from serfdom and excessive taxation. Nobles feared that Wycliffe’s justification for seizing Church property could turn into a justification to seize the king’s wealth.

Who were the Lollards? These people embraced John Wycliffe’s ideas in the

fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.


FOCUS QUESTIONS What did the Czechs like about Wycliffe’s ideas? Some of them saw them as a way to achieve political freedom from

Germany. Based on the paragraph “Like Wycliffe, Hus attacked…” (p. 215),

were Hus’s complaints mainly about corruption or were they doctrinal in nature?

Hus was at odds with the Church over many doctrines such as the supremacy of private judgment, the Scriptures as the only basis of faith, and faith alone—rather than faith and works—as necessary for salvation.

What fate did Jan Hus meet at the Council of Constance, and how is

he regarded today among the Czech people? He was condemned as a heretic and executed; today he is regarded a

martyr for Czech nationalism.


GUIDED EXERCISE Complete a Think/Pair/Share using the following

question:

William of Ockham spent years under the protection of the Holy Roman emperor. To what extent would Ockham’s political views have been welcome in the emperor’s court?


HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT Study Questions 36–47 (p. 235) Practical Exercises 2–3 (p. 236) Workbook Questions 78–103 Read “The Fall of Constantinople and the Rise of the

Italian Free Cities” through “The Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence (1431–1445) and the End of the Byzantine Empire” (pp. 215–218)


CLOSURE Free write for five minutes about how Pope Urban VI

might have prevented the Western Schism.


ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT Open-workbook quiz using one or two questions from

last night’s homework.


ANTICIPATORY SET View an official copy of the bull Lætentur Cœli and read

a brief history of this document that proclaimed the agreement reached between the Eastern and Western Churches at the Ecumenical Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence:

asv.vatican.va/en/doc/1439.htm

5. The Fall of Constantinople and the Rise of the Italian Free

Cities (pp. 215–218)

BASIC QUESTIONS Why did the Pope convene the Ecumenical Council of Basel-

Ferrara-Florence, and what was its effect? What were the effects of the fall of Constantinople?

KEY IDEAS Pope Eugene IV and the Byzantine emperor John VIII

orchestrated the Ecumenical Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence to effect a reunification of East and West. John VIII hoped that reunion would result in military aid for his besieged empire.

The Greek populace rejected the Ecumenical Council, no significant military aid reached Constantinople, and the city fell to the Turks in 1453, ending an 1100-year Christian empire and embittering the Greeks toward the West. The Italian city-states benefitted culturally and financially from the shift of trade from Greece to Italy.



GUIDED EXERCISE Think/Pair/Share using the following question:

Why was the Ecumenical Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence a disappointment for Emperor John VIII?



GUIDED EXERCISE Search the Internet for Dionysios Hatzopoulos’s account

of “The Fall of Constantinople, 1453,” and read it.



FOCUS QUESTIONS What threat did the Byzantine Empire survive at the end

of the fourteenth century? The Ottoman Turks laid siege to Constantinople but had to

withdraw due to Mongol attacks from the east. How did the threat posed by the Ottoman Empire affect

East-West Church relations? The common danger that the East and West faced from Islam

drew the hierarchs of the two sides together. The Venetians were interested especially in good financial relations with the East. Pope Eugene IV, a Venetian, wanted to reunite East and West to launch a unified crusade against the Turks.



GRAPHIC ORGANIZER Work with a partner to complete the following table about

the Ecumenical Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence.



FOCUS QUESTIONS What did Pope Eugene IV want out of the

Ecumenical Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence? He hoped to end the Great Schism. What did Emperor John VIII want out of the

Ecumenical Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence? He wanted to establish quickly a military alliance

between East and West and avoid lengthy theological discussions.



FOCUS QUESTIONS How did Pope Eugene IV promote dialogue between the

Greek and Latin Council Fathers? He formed commissions made up of Greeks and Latins to

draft a clear conclusion to each issue. What was the result of the Ecumenical Council of Basel-

Ferrara-Florence? In 1439 the Council Fathers agreed to reunite the two

Churches. Under pressure from Emperor John VIII, the Greek bishops accepted the addition of Filioque to the Creed, the existence of Purgatory, and the primacy of the Pope, all of which healed the division on paper.



FOCUS QUESTIONS How long did Muslim rule in Constantinople continue? Except for a brief period after World War I, it continues to the

present day. What was the political character of the Italian city-states? The Italian city-states were not nationalistic but small,

independent republics. Besides wielding temporal power in Italy, what did the

Renaissance Popes do? They financed art and architecture and encouraged the founding

of schools and universities.



HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT Study Questions 48–52 (p. 235) Practical Exercises 4–5 (p. 236) Workbook Questions 104–119 Read “Humanism” through “Conclusion” (pp. 218–

231)



CLOSURE Write a paragraph about why the Ecumenical Council of

Basel-Ferrara-Florence was convened and what it accomplished.



ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT Imagine you are a Greek Orthodox citizen of

Constantinople who escaped the city during its siege and fall. Write a letter revealing your feelings about the recent council and the Western Church in general.



ANTICIPATORY SET Discuss the following questions:

Why was it reasonable for Medieval universities to have seen theology as the highest area of learning, focusing more on the next world than this one?

How might you expect university education to have changed when the student population no longer consisted primarily of monks and clerics?

6. Humanism and Papal Politics

(pp. 218–231)

BASIC QUESTIONS What are the core values of humanism? Who were some of the early major humanist writers? Who were the major Renaissance Popes, and what were their contributions? KEY IDEAS Humanism was an intellectual and literary movement; its education was based

on classical literary texts intended to make the student better, wiser, and more virtuous. Christian humanism joined an appreciation for classical culture with the view that man is made in the image of God and has God as his ultimate end.

Dante’s Divine Comedy strikes a balance between a person’s earthly condition and life after death. Petrarch was a master of Latin and vernacular love poetry. Boccaccio was a comic poet who exposed the foibles and weaknesses in human nature. Machiavelli’s The Prince portrays an amoral use of means to secure political power.

While some Renaissance Popes lived moral lives, contributed to scholarship and learning, sought reconciliation with the East, and tried to unify Christendom against the Turkish threat, others were worldly rulers who sought political power and to build up Rome as a great city filled with beautiful art and architecture.


(pp. 218–231)

FOCUS QUESTIONS Why did the humanists consider art the pinnacle of human

achievement? In art, the human person could craft beautiful forms—perfect in

form, balance, and composition. To what extent is humanism a revival of paganism? Some humanists displayed an inordinate reverence for pagan

thinkers and writers and held a worldly outlook devoid of religion.

What is Christian humanism? This form of humanism integrates the humanistic perspective with

the revelation of man as made in the image and likeness of God.


(pp. 218–231)

GUIDED EXERCISE Discuss this humanistic belief and the following

question:

A classical training alone, based on the literature and culture of classical antiquity, could form a perfect human person.

Do you think this belief is true?


(pp. 218–231)

FOCUS QUESTION Why is Dante Alighieri considered both a Medieval

and Renaissance writer? Dante lived at the end of the Middle Ages and was

concerned with not only man’s earthly condition but also his eternal destiny. Dante had a great admiration for classical authors; though they could not go to Heaven, Dante did not condemn them to Hell but left them in limbo in his Divine Comedy.


(pp. 218–231)

GUIDED EXERCISE For five minutes write a dialogue between an

enthusiastic young Renaissance humanist scholar and a second-century Christian about to be martyred in the arena.


(pp. 218–231)

GUIDED EXERCISE Work with a partner to research an assigned

Renaissance artist or work of art. Write two sentences on a separate sheet of paper describing the artist or work of art.


(pp. 218–231)

FOCUS QUESTIONS How were the great works of the Renaissance financed? They were commissioned by wealthy families, kings, and Popes. What is a “Renaissance man,” and how is Michelangelo one? A Renaissance man excels in many disciplines. Michelangelo was a

great sculptor, painter, and architect. For what depictions of the human form is Michelangelo best

known, and why have these works endured? He depicted the contours of the human body such that the

grandeur of man comes out with overwhelming force. Two examples are his sculpture David and the people depicted on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.


(pp. 218–231)

GUIDED EXERCISE Raphael was an artist who is best known for his

portraits of the Madonna (“My Lady,” i.e., the Blessed Virgin Mary) and large paintings in the Vatican apartments.

Search the Internet for commentary and view examples of his work to gain a better appreciation of Raphael.


(pp. 218–231)

FOCUS QUESTIONS By what title is Erasmus known? He is called the Father of Northern Humanism. How did Erasmus view the Middle Ages compared to the

classical era? He saw the Middle Ages and Scholasticism as unenlightened and

stagnant while holding the classical thinkers in highest esteem. What was Erasmus’s attitude toward human virtues? He extolled human virtues, especially prudence, intellectual

honesty, zeal for truth, and consideration for others. These led him to desire reform and progress through education and tolerance.


(pp. 218–231)

GUIDED EXERCISE Work with a partner. Half of the pairs will research the

first question and the other half the second. To answer the question, you will need to review St. Thomas a Becket and Machiavelli and scan the material on King Henry VIII (pp. 252–257).

1.How are St. Thomas More and Machiavelli on opposite ends of the political spectrum?

2.How do Sts. Thomas More and Thomas a Becket compare?


(pp. 218–231)

FOCUS QUESTIONS

How does the Catholic Church view St. Thomas More? The Fathers of the Second Vatican Council held up St. Thomas as an

example for all people of the “inalienable dignity of the human conscience” (Gaudium et Spes 16). Pope Bl. John Paul II put forth St. Thomas as an imperishable witness to moral integrity: “the primacy of truth over power.”

What were St. Thomas’s qualifications as a humanist? He mastered Greek and Latin and received a liberal education.

How were the circumstances surrounding humanism in northern Europe different from those in Italy?

The North did not see significant changes in its economy, social life, and education. There was not a rise in prosperity or a significant middle class; most of the people were rural and poor. In the North, the new anthropocentric mindset was integrated into the Christian outlook, the result of which was Christian humanism.


(pp. 218–231)

FOCUS QUESTIONS How was Pope Nicholas V a promoter of literature? He saved thousands of ancient texts; founded the Vatican library, which

housed more than 5000 works; and sponsored humanist writers and translators of Greek classics.

What were Pope Nicholas’s doctrinal contributions? He finalized the condemnation of the Conciliarist heresy, won the

submission of Antipope Felix V, and sent great theologians to northern Europe to stem growing religious dissent among the clergy and laity.

What was the result of Pope Nicholas’s political failures? Pope Nicholas’s inability to achieve political unity in Europe made it

impossible to defend Constantinople against the Turkish threat, leading to that city’s fall in 1453.


(pp. 218–231)

FOCUS QUESTIONS How was Pope Callistus III preoccupied during his

pontificate? He tried to get the princes of Europe to recognize the Turkish

threat and unite to defend Christendom.

How could Pius II’s early life be said to be an unlikely one for a future Pope?

His early life was marked by moral laxity, a fervent embrace of pagan culture, and support for Conciliarism against the Pope.

What was the focus of Pius II’s pontificate? Like Callistus III, Pius II focused on overcoming the Turkish

threat but was likewise unsuccessful.


(pp. 218–231)

FOCUS QUESTIONS How did the Renaissance Popes generally live? They lived generally like worldly princes. How did Tommaso Parentucelli’s scholarship help

communicate effectively with Eastern Christians? Parentucelli’s familiarity with Scholastic philosophy and

the Fathers of the Church gave him prominence among the Greek bishops who attended the Ecumenical Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence.


(pp. 218–231)

GUIDED EXERCISE Work with a partner to identify the major tasks Pope

Nicholas V undertook; discuss the following question:

What better tasks might Pope Nicholas V have undertaken?


(pp. 218–231)

GUIDED EXERCISE Work with a partner to identify the failures and

successes of Pope Sixtus IV.


(pp. 218–231)

GUIDED EXERCISE Research the art in Renaissance Florence and then

write a paragraph explaining the various kinds of art found there.


(pp. 218–231)

HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT Study Questions 53–59 (p. 235) Practical Exercise 6 (p. 236) Workbook Questions 120–164


(pp. 218–231)

ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT Discuss three Renaissance Popes—Innocent VIII,

Alexander VI, and Julius II—using the following questions:

What were some of the successes and failures of these Popes?

How can the moral failures of some Popes actually demonstrate papal infallibility?


(pp. 218–231)

CLOSURE Write a paragraph explaining the origin and core views

of humanism.


(pp. 218–231)

THE END

chapter 5: the renaissance the history of the church

Documents

liberal arts

advanced students

scholasticism science

methodology of scholasticism

university of bologna

university of paris

south of europe

focus questions