Chapter 5: The Range of

Research Methods

The Range (Fig. 5.1)

Method Brief description

Scholarship Well-read, thinking deeply and creatively about a topic

Just thinking ‘Thinking’ part of scholarship.Existing sources 1: using the literature/ systematic reviews

Identifying, summarising, evaluating the research literature.

Existing sources 2: secondary data

Re-use of data originally collected by others for other purposes.

Observation Direct looking at behaviour or cameras.Qualitative methods Data in the form of words (images, sounds)

Questionnaire-based surveys Use of formal, printed list of questions: main quant. method in leisure/tourism research.

Experimental method The researcher controls the environment

Case study Focus is on one or a small number of cases

A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Qualitative methods (Fig. 5.2)

Data collection methodIn-depth interviews One-on-one, lengthy interview, checklist rather

than questionnaireFocus groups Discussions with groups of people (typically 6-12)

led by a facilitator

A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Qualitative methods contdData collection methodIn-depth interviews One-on-one, lengthy interview, checklist rather

than questionnaireFocus groups Discussions with groups of people (typically 6-12)

led by a facilitator.Observation Examined by the naked eye or use of camera. Participant observation Researcher as participant

A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Qualitative methods contdData collection methodIn-depth interviews One-on-one, lengthy interview, checklist rather

than questionnaireFocus groups Discussions with groups of people (typically 6-12)

led by a facilitatorObservation Examined by the naked eye or use of camera. Participant observation Researcher as participantBiographical methods Subjects are invited to provide their own accountsAnalysis of texts Analysis of published or unpublished ‘texts’ (incl.

Images, TV, film, music, radio)

A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Qualitative methods contdData collection methodIn-depth interviews One-on-one, lengthy interview, checklist rather

than questionnaireFocus groups Discussions with groups of people (typically 6-12)

led by a facilitatorObservation Examined by the naked eye or use of camera. Participant observation Researcher as participantBiographical methods Subjects are invited to provide their own accountsAnalysis of texts Analysis of published or unpublished ‘texts’ (incl.

Images, TV, film, music, radio)Ethnography Studying groups of people using a mixture of

methodsNetnography Ethnographic research based on internet activity

A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Questionnaire-based surveys

• Two forms:– interview format: interviewer reads out questions from

questionnaire – respondent-completion format – respondent reads and

completes the questionnaire

• NB: ‘Interviews’ can be:– questionnaire-based or– in-depth/informal, check-list-based (see qual. above)

A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Types of questionnaire-based survey (Fig. 5.3)

Type Alternative nameHousehold survey Community survey or social surveyStreet survey Quota survey or intercept survey

A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Types of questionnaire-based survey (Contd)

Type Alternative nameHousehold survey Community survey or social surveyStreet survey Quota survey or intercept surveyTelephone survey -On-line survey Web-based surveyMail survey Postal survey

A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Types of questionnaire-based survey (Fig. 5.3)

Type Alternative nameHousehold survey Community survey or social surveyStreet survey Quota survey or intercept surveyTelephone survey -On-line survey Web-based surveyMail survey Postal surveySite or user survey Visitor survey, customer survey,

intercept surveyCaptive group survey -

A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Subsidiary/cross-cutting techniques (Fig. 5.4)Technique Brief descriptionAction research Research committed to social outcomes, typically

involving collaboration with a client organisation

En route/intercept/ cordon surveys

Survey conducted with visitors entering, leaving or travelling to or from a site/destination

Conjoint analysis A process for studying people's choice processes by asking people to express preferences for hypothetical products with different combinations of attributes.

Content analysis Quantitative study of printed/written documents or static/moving images (see also qualitative methods).

Coupon surveys/ conversion studies

Analysis of returns from 'special offer', 'two for the price of one' etc. vouchers/ advertisements

Delphi technique studies

Process in which a sample of experts responds to questions about future events in repeated rounds ideally to achieve us

Subsidiary/cross-cutting contdTechnique Brief descriptionEpidemiology The study of geographical distributions of variables

(e.g. health status) among the population.

Longitudinal studies The same sample of subjects are repeatedly surveyed typically over a number of years.

Experience sampling method (ESM)

Subjects are contacted by mobile phone several times a day to record activities/feelings etc. as they go about day-to-day activities.

A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Historical research Research on past events.

Media reader/viewer/ listener surveys

Media report on surveys in which readers/listeners take part, typically on-line or via auto-phone-in.

Meta-analysis Examination/summary of many studies on one topic, typically with a key outcome measure such as a correlation coefficient.

Subsidiary/cross-cutting contdTechnique Brief descriptionNetwork analysis Study of links between individuals and/or organisations

involved in an activity (graphical/mathematical)

Projective techniques Subjects respond to hypothetical scenarios.

Perceptual mapping Subjects provide graphic representation of components of a problem/issue, typically collaborative.

A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Panel studies A sample of individuals recruited to a 'panel' who may take part in several surveys over a period of time.

Psychographic/ lifestyle studies

Data on a wide range of attitudes, values and socio-demographics analysed to determine distinctive psychographic/lifestyle groups/market segments.

Psychographic/lifestyle categories (Fig. 5.7)

VALS1. Survivor2. Sustainer3. Belonger4. Emulator5. Achiever6. I-Am-Me7. Experiential8. Socially conscious9. Integrated

A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

4. Moderate means K. Asian communities L. Post-industrial families M. Blue-collar roots

5. Hard-pressed N. Struggling families O. Burdened singles P. High-rise hardship Q. Inner city adversity

Psychographics: ACORN1. Wealth achievers A. Wealthy Executives B. Affluent greys C. Flourishing

2. Urban prosperity D. Prosperous professionals E. Educated urbanites F. Aspiring singles

3. Comfortably off G. Starting out H. Secure families I. Settled suburbia J. Prudent pensioners

Subsidiary/cross-cutting contd

Repertory grid Pairs of contrasting descriptors elicited from respondents to form constructs; scores on constructs are analysed to form a perceptual picture.

A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Friendly Threatening

Cool Uncool

Technique Brief description

Q methodology Process in which subjects rank scale items (as above) depicted on cards.

Quantitative modelling

Quantitative method in which relationships between two or more variables are assessed statistically.

Subsidiary/cross-cutting contd

Multiple methodsTriangulation Two or more methods focus on the same phenomen-

on, providing confirmation or differing insights.

Counting heads Management task: various research approaches, needed in situations where usage/visitor numbers are not available from ticket sales.

A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Use of scales Batteries of 'stimulus items' (responded to via Likert-type scales.

Time-use surveys Survey in which respondents complete a detailed 1-2-day diary of activities.

Web-based research Research on, or using, the internet – see also 'netnography' under qualitative methods above.

Choosing methods

• Considerations (Fig. 5.11)

1. The research question or hypothesis2. Previous research3. Data availability/access4. Resources5. Time6. Validity, reliability, trustworthiness 7. Generalisability8. Ethics 9. Uses/users of the findings

A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge